What is the difference between the four counties and Hailu? Why the opposite tone? Analysis and comparison of the differences between the two dominant accents of Taiwanese Hakka

The two accents most people use in Taiwanese Hakka are Sixian accent and Hailu accent. What is the difference between these two accents? Why is the tone just the opposite? What are the differences in the number of users, the scope of distribution, the pronunciation of phonology, and the choice of words? This article will explain in detail the differences between the two, as well as a comparative analysis of the differences between each other.

1 Introduction

Hakka is the second largest ethnic group in Taiwan, and their mother tongue is Hakka. However, Hakka in Taiwan is divided into four accents, Hailu, Dapu, Raoping, and Zhaoan, and is the most widely used. The tone of the Chinese language is the four-county dialect, including train platforms, buses, and subways. The broadcasting system is usually based on the Hakka dialect of the four counties. Therefore, when non-native Hakka speakers want to learn Hakka, most of them choose to learn the four-county dialect. cavity.

However, although most Hakka learners choose Sixian dialect more often, when they choose to learn Sixian dialect, they may find out why there is a "Hailu dialect"? Among Hakka speakers in Taiwan, apart from the Sixian accent used by the first majority, Hailu accent is the second most used. What is the difference between Sixian accent and Hailu accent?

Although the Sixian accent and the Hailu accent of Taiwanese Hakka are the two most widely used accents in Taiwanese Hakka, there are still many differences in terms of vocabulary and phonology. What's more special is that the tones of Sixian and Hailu sound opposite, that is, when Sixian pronounces a high pitch, Hailu emits a low pitch, and vice versa, when Sixian pronounces a low pitch, Hailu emits a high pitch. This is the first time many people have heard these two tones. It's interesting to have a different accent.

Of course, the biggest difference between the four counties and Hailu is not only that the tones sound exactly opposite, but also includes many differences in origin, number of users, language classification, pronunciation (including initials, finals, tone sandhi, etc.), vocabulary, etc., but Are the differences much worse? What is the difference? This article will introduce the differences between the two in detail, and compare and contrast each other.

2 Scope of discussion

There are many Hakka-speaking populations in the world, including mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Suriname, India, Bangladesh, Bangladesh, and other Chinese Hakka communities. Every place in the region has different types, dialects, sub-dialects, and accents of Hakka, with a large number of categories.

However, Taiwan Hakka dialect is divided into Sixian dialect, Hailu dialect, Dapu dialect, Raoping dialect, Zhao'an dialect, etc. However, the title of this article is "Differences between Taiwan's four counties and Hailu dialect", so the article elaborates on the followingFocusing on the differences between "four counties" and "sea and land" in the four county dialect of Hakka in Taiwan, other types of Hakka and their content and usage are not within the scope of this article.

In addition, even though the Hakka language of the four counties in Taiwan originated from the Hakka language of Meixian in Mainland China, and the Hakka language of Hailu in Taiwan originated from the Hakka language of Mainland China, the purpose of this article is to focus on the differences between the four counties of Taiwan and the land and sea. "Parts will consider the Meixian and Hailu Hakka languages in mainland China, so the parts outside Taiwan will not be included in the main scope of discussion.

Finally, since the four counties can be divided into the four north counties and the four south counties, if the "four counties" mentioned in this article without specifying whether it is the four north counties or the four south counties, it usually means that there is no distinction between the four north and south counties (also That is, it may include the four northern counties and the four southern counties at the same time, or there is no difference between the two), so this article focuses on the differences between the four counties in Taiwan and the Hailu Hakka language, not the differences between the four northern and southern counties.

3 Background knowledge

Whether it is Sixian or Hailu, it is one of the Hakka languages in Taiwan. Before understanding the differences between Sixian and Hailu, if you can have a general understanding of the concept of "Hakka", you will be able to understand this article. Help, including the various types, distribution, user groups, number of users, basic pronunciation and vocabulary of Hakka. In addition, the Hakka Pinyin used in this article uses the "Taiwanese Hakka Pinyin Scheme", and some phonetic symbols will be added in some places. Therefore, the basic concepts and overview of the Hakka language, as well as the instructions on the use of phonetic symbols, are all written in <How do you say it in Hakka?〉In this article, readers can take the time to read it.

Although this article focuses on the differences between the four counties and the sea and land, the four counties can be divided into the four north counties and the four south counties. It is the same as Hailu, so in most cases, it will still be divided into four north and south counties. Only a few places where the north four counties are the same as Hailu and the south four counties are different. The four northern counties are the representatives of the four counties). Therefore, if readers are interested in understanding the differences between the four counties in the north and the four counties in the south, as well as detailed content analysis, please refer to <What is the difference between the North Four Counties and the South Four Counties?〉 article, in order to focus on the main purpose of this article, but also to understand more detailed extended information.

4 Difference Discussion

In Taiwanese Hakka, the number of speakers is the largest in Sixian and Hailu (Sixian accounts for 50% to 60%, and Hailu accounts for more than 40%. Subsequent chapters will discuss the difference in the number of users between the two in detail), almost Each accounts for half (some people will use more than two kinds at the same time, so the proportion will exceed one hundred), but what is the difference between the Hakka dialects of the four counties and Hailu? The following will analyze, explain, and compare the differences between the two in detail in terms of human origin, name, number of users, geographical distribution, language classification, writing system, phonology, pronunciation, and vocabulary.

4.1 Differences in origin

Most of the ancestral homeland of the Hakka people in Taiwan originated from the Guangdong Province of Guangdong Province in mainland China, and a small part came from Fujian Province. According to the "Taiwan Hakka Map" written by Qiu Yangui and Wu Zhongjie, the main sources of Taiwan Hakka people are as follows: (the current place names are in brackets)

• Guangdong Province
  • Jiaying Prefecture: Jiaying (Meixian), Zhenping (Jiaoling), Xingning, Changle (Wuhua), Pingyuan.
  • Chaozhou Prefecture: mainly in Dapu, Fengshun, Raoping, and Jiexi, where there are many Hakka people.
  • Huizhou Prefecture: mainly the Hakka towns of Luhe, Haifeng, and Lufeng.
• Fujian Province
  • Tingzhou Prefecture: Changting, Shanghang, Wuping, Liancheng, Yongding.
  • Zhangzhou Prefecture: Hakka towns in Nanjing, Pinghe, Zhao'an, and Yunxiao are the main ones.

Map of the main ancestral origins of Hakka Hockao immigrants in Taiwan in the Qing Dynasty (Qiu Yangui and Wu Zhongjie, 2001)

Although the four counties and Hailu in Taiwanese Hakka all originated from the eastern part of Guangdong Province, they are actually distributed in different regions of Guangdong. The four counties came from Jiaying (now Meixian District, Meizhou City), Zhenping (now Jiaoling County, Meizhou City), Xingning (Xingning City, Meizhou City) and Changle (now Meizhou) in Jiaying Prefecture, Guangdong Province during the Qing Dynasty. Wuhua County, Shanwei City), Pingyuan (Pingyuan County, Meizhou City) and other places; and Hailu came from Luhe (Luhe County, Shanwei City), Haifeng (Haifeng County, Shanwei City), and Lufeng (Luhe County, Shanwei City) in Huizhou Prefecture, Guangdong Province during the Qing Dynasty. Lufeng City, Shanwei City) is dominated by Hakka towns (because Hailufeng also speaks Hokkien in addition to Hakka).

Differences between the four counties in Taiwan and the origins of Hailu Hakka

Hakka	origin		Taiwan distribution area
	source	area
four counties	Meixian Hakka	In the Qing Dynasty, Jiaying (now Meixian) in Jiaying Prefecture, Guangdong Province, and four nearby areas were Changle (now Wuhua), Xingning, Zhenping (now Jiaoling), and Pingyuan.	Zhongli, Pingzhen, and Yangmei in Taoyuan, Guanxi and Miaoli in Hsinchu, and Liudui (located in Kaohsiung and Pingtung) in the south.
land and sea	Sea and land Hakka	Haifeng and Lufeng (including today's Luhe) in Huizhou Prefecture, Guangdong Province in the Qing Dynasty.	Yangmei, Fugang, Xinwu, Guanyin, Hsinchu in Taoyuan, Fenglin, Ji'an, Shoufeng, Xincheng, Yuli, Ruisui and other parts of Hualien.

 

Remarks added: Although the Hakka language of the four counties in Taiwan originated from today’s Mei County, in the eleventh year of Yongzheng’s reign in the Qing Dynasty (1733), Chengxiang County was promoted to Jiaying Zhili Prefecture, and it was changed to Meizhou in the first year of the Republic of China (1912). Spin down to Meixian. In March 1979, Meizhou Town under the jurisdiction of Meixian County was upgraded from the district level to the county level and called Meizhou City. In June 1983, the county-level Meizhou City merged with Meixian County and became Meixian City. In January 1988, Guangdong implemented the city-administered county system, and the Meixian area was changed to the prefecture-level Meizhou City. Meixian City analyzed Meixian and Meijiang District, which belonged to the jurisdiction of Meizhou City. On December 8, 2013, "Meixian" was abolished. From then on, Meixian ended the county government, and at the same time, "Meixian District of Meizhou City" was established. Merge Meixian urban area (Overseas Chinese Town, Meixian New City) into Meizhou urban area. Therefore, the origin of the four counties does not refer to the current "Meixian District", but refers to Jiaying in the Qing Dynasty and the areas that "Meixian" once expanded after its establishment. Although the origin of Taiwan's Hailu Hakka language includes Luhe in mainland China today, it belonged to Lufeng County in the Qing Dynasty, and it was not until 1988 that Luhe County was established separately. Nowadays, most of Luhe speak Hakka with Hailu accent, and only Henglong Village of Xintian Town speaks Hokkien.

4.2 Name differences

In the previous section, it was explained that the origins of Taiwan’s four-county Hakka and Hailu Hakka are Guangdong’s Meixian Hakka and Hailu Hakka respectively, but why “Hailu” maintains the same name, while “Six Counties” does not use “Meixian” Woolen cloth? Do "four counties" and "sea and land" have other different names in Taiwan? The differences in origin of the two names and the individual names that differ are discussed below.

4.2.1 Differences in naming methods

According to Zhong Rongfu's book "Introduction to Taiwan Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition", he mentioned the origin of the word "Sixian" in the Hakka language of the four counties in Taiwan. The excerpts are as follows:

The four counties refer to the four counties and cities that used to belong to the "Jiaying Prefecture" such as Pingyuan, Jiaoling, Wuhua, and Xingning, whose ancestors immigrated from Guangdong. However, the Hakka dialect of Meixian County is the authentic Hakka of the four counties (Yang Shifeng 1957 , Luo Zhaojin 1984, Zhong Rongfu 2004), the reason is that Mei County is the seat of Jiaying Prefecture. In fact, "Four Counties" is a man-made name, first seen in Yang Shifeng (1957), and later widely adopted by academic circles and administrative departments.

In addition, the author of the book also added a note on the same page:

　　The name of the "Four Counties" is just like Columbus's naming of the "Indians", which is purely a beautiful misunderstanding in history. According to history, some people think that "four counties" refers to the traditional name left before "Meixian" was not divided into counties. In fact, the "Four Counties" is a conventional appellation entirely based on the name of Yang Shifeng (1957). No Hakka linguist or historian objected, so it became a fixed name. Note: According to my personal fieldwork experience, the Meixian area, as well as Pingyuan, Jiaoling, Xingning, and Wuhua, do not have the title of "four counties". The Hakkas who migrated to Singapore are called "Five Genus" (Pingyuan, Jiaoling, Xingning, Wuhua, Meixian) or Jiayingke, and they are not called "Sixian". It can be seen that "Sixian" is a product of Taiwan. Yang Shifeng’s main comparison is Yuan Jiahua (1980) [2001], the content is Meixian Hakka.

It can be seen that the Hakka language of Meixian has been spread to Taiwan and developed for two or three hundred years since the Qing Dynasty. According to the literature written by Yang Shifeng (1957), the use of "four counties" to refer to the Hakka language has also gained academic Adoption by the world and the executive branch. In addition, because the Hakka language of the four counties is the most spoken Hakka language in Taiwan, it is also influenced by Taiwanese Hokkien and other languages, and it is partially different from the original Meixian dialect (mainly reflected in the difference in vocabulary, and a small number of pronunciations), but since this article focuses on the differences between the four counties and the sea and land, it will not be discussed here. As for Taiwan's Hailu dialect (Hailu Hakka), the word "Hailu" in the original hometown is used, and there is no other name.

All in all, the naming method of the word "Sixian" in the Hakka language of Taiwan's four counties is different from the word "Meixian" in the Hakka language of the original hometown Meixian, and the naming method of the word "Hailu" in the Hakka language of Taiwan's Hailu is different from that of the original The word "sea and land" in the rural Hailu guest language is the same. The naming differences between the two are organized in a table below.

Differences in Origin and Naming of the Names of the Four Counties in Taiwan and Hailu Hakka

Hakka name		illustrate	Differences from the original name
Taiwan	Yuanxiang
four counties	Meixian	Instead of using the term "Meixian" in Yuanxiang, "Sixian" is used.	❌ different
land and sea	land and sea	Directly use the same word "sea and land" as Yuanxiang.	✅ same

4.2.2 Differences in names

As can be seen from the above paragraph, the two most important Hakka languages in Taiwan are called "Sixian" and "Hailu" respectively, but since the two are not evenly distributed in Taiwan, they are not concentrated in one place respectively (for example: Beisi Most of the counties are in the north, and the four southern counties are only in Liudui in the south; most of the sea and land are in the north, and some are in Hualien in the east. So it is not evenly distributed in the whole Taiwan, and there is no special concentration), so there will be many differences due to geography For example, a small number of people call Beisi County dialect as Miaoli dialect (but not all of them are in Miaoli, including Taoyuan and Hsinchu, etc.), and some call Hailu dialect as Hsinchu dialect. (It is not only distributed in Hsinchu, but also includes Taoyuan, Hualien, etc.), and the Nansi counties are called Liudui Hakka (the Nansi counties are indeed distributed in the Liudui area of Kaohsiung and Pingtung).

In addition, because of the differences between the north and the south, the four counties can be subdivided into the four north counties and the four south counties, and the four counties happen to be the most spoken Hakka language in Taiwan, so some people call the four north counties the northern Hakka dialect. The Southern Four Counties are called Southern Hakka, but this name is not very accurate. After all, in Taiwan Hakka, in addition to the Four Counties, there are also Hailu, Dapu, Raoping, Zhaoan and so on. In the following, the different names of the four counties and Hailu will be compiled in the form of a table, the origin of the naming will be explained, and the degree of use of the name will be marked with an asterisk.

Differences between the names of the four counties in Taiwan and the Hakka languages of Hailu

Classification		name, appellation, alias	Origin and Description	degree of use
four counties	Regardless	Sixian, Sixian accent, Sixian dialect, Sixian accent, Sixian Hakka, Sixian Hakka, Sixian Hakka, Sixian dialect, Sixian, Sixian dialect, Sixian accent, Sixian Hakka	Originated from the four counties and cities of Changle (now Wuhua), Xingning, Zhenping (now Jiaoling), and Pingyuan in Jiaying Prefecture, Guangdong Province in the Qing Dynasty, Meixian dialect is the authentic dialect, and passed through Yang Shifeng in 1957 "Four Counties" was named in the literature of the Qing Dynasty, and no Hakka linguists or historians objected to it. It became a fixed name and was widely adopted by academic circles and administrative departments.	★★★
		Meixian, Meixian Dialect, Meixian Hakka Dialect, Meixian Hakka, Meixian Hakka; Taiwan Meixian Dialect, Taiwan Meixian Hakka	Since the four counties in Taiwan come from the Meixian dialect in mainland China, and there is no barrier to communication, Meixian dialect is also considered to be the representative sound/standard language of Hakka, so there are still a small number of people who call it Meixian dialect without distinction, or in Adding "Taiwan" in front is called "Taiwanese Meixian dialect", but the academic circles, educational circles, and the general public generally agree with the title of "Four Counties", so only a very small number of people use Meixian dialect to call Taiwan's four county dialects, and The four counties have been developed in Taiwan for more than 200 to 300 years, and the division of the four counties in the north and south has also been extended, which is different from the original Meixian dialect.	★☆☆
	North four counties	Sixian, Sixian accent, Sixian dialect, Sixian accent, Sixian Hakka, Sixian Hakka, Sixian Hakka, Sixian dialect, Sixian, Sixian dialect, Sixian accent, Sixian Hakka	Since the number of users and the scope of the four northern counties are the widest, while the four southern counties are relatively small, usually, if the "four counties in the north" are not specifically used to distinguish them from the four counties in the south, the "four counties" will be used to refer to the north. four counties. For example, the Hakka Council's "Dictionary of Commonly Used Hakka Words in Taiwan" uses "four counties" to refer to the four northern counties, and additionally uses "four southern counties" as a distinction; the Ministry of Education's "Hakka Pinyin Learning Network" also uses "four "Xianqiang" and "Nansixianqiang" are used to distinguish between the south and the north. The same is true for Hake Learning Network and Hakyu Certification.	★★★
		Beisixian, Beisixian accent, Beisixian accent, Beisixian dialect, Beisixian accent	Directly use the "Northern Four Counties" to distinguish from the "Southern Four Counties".	★★☆
		Miaoli accent, Miaoli tone	Because the number of people who use the four counties is the widest and the most frequently used location is in Miaoli, it is sometimes called Miaoli cavity. However, the four-county cavity is widely distributed and not only concentrated in Miaoli, so it is rarely used. call.	★☆☆
		Northern Hakka, Northern Hakka, Northern Hakka	Since Sixian is the most widely used Hakka language in Taiwan, some places directly use northern Hakka and other words to refer to the northern Sixian dialect, but this usage is not accurate and cannot reflect the classification of various Taiwanese Hakka languages. .	★☆☆
	Nansi County accent	Nansi County, Nansi County Dialect, Nansi County Dialect, Nansi County Dialect, Nansi County Dialect	Directly use the "four counties in the south" to distinguish them from the "four counties in the north".	★★★
		Liudui, Liudui Hakka, Liudui Hakka, Liudui Hakka	Since the population of Nansi County is usually distributed in the Liudui area of southern Taiwan, "Liudui" is used as the name of the local Hakka dialect.	★★☆
		Southern Hakka, Southern Hakka, Southern Hakka	Since the Sixian accent is the most widely used Hakka language in Taiwan, some places directly use southern Hakka words to guide the Sixian accent, but this usage is relatively imprecise and cannot reflect the various Taiwanese Hakka dialects. Classification.	★☆☆
land and sea		Hailu, Hailu accent, Hailu Hakka, Hailu Hakka, Hailu Hakka, Hailu Hakka, Hailu Hakka dialect, Hailu, Hailu dialect, Hailu accent, Hailu Hakka	Originated from Haifeng and Lufeng's "Hailu Hakka" in Huizhou, Guangdong in the Qing Dynasty, the term "Hailu" was used after they migrated to Taiwan.	★★★
		Hailu Dialect, Hailu Dialect; Taiwan Hailu Dialect, Taiwan Hailu Dialect	The word "Hailu" of "Hailu Hakka" is used, but because "Hailu Hokkien" is spoken in the Haifeng and Lufeng areas of mainland China, it is often called "Hailu Dialect" or "Hailufeng Dialect" (Haifeng Dialect and Lufeng The collective name of the dialect), using "Hailu Dialect" may confuse "Hailu Hokkien" with "Hailu Hakka", so try to use it sparingly. However, since there is no "Hailu Hokkien" in Taiwan (only Taiwanese Hokkien/Taiwanese/Taiwanese), if the word "Taiwan" is added in front of "Hailu", it must refer to Taiwan's "Hailu Hakka". language" instead of "sea and land Hokkien".	★☆☆
		Hsinchu Tune, Hsinchu Hakka, Hsinchu Hakka, Hsinchu Hakka	Due to the widest number of people using sea and land, and the most frequently used location in Hsinchu, it is sometimes called Hsinchu Tune, but the distribution of sea and land is not only concentrated in Hsinchu, but also includes Taoyuan, Miaoli, and the north. There are also parts of Hualien in the east that use Hailuk, so this name is rarely used.	★☆☆

Usually, dialects, variants, and branches under a certain language can be called "○○话". For example: "Meixian Hakka" under Hakka can be called "Meixian Dialect", "Sixian Hakka" can be called "Sixian Dialect"; and "Xiamen Minnan" under Hokkien (family) "Xiamen dialect" can be called "Xiamen dialect", "Taiwan Hokkien (Taiwanese)" can be called "Taiwanese"; "It can be called "Matsu's words".

It should be noted that the premise of using "○○话" is that it is usually represented by the language/dialect spoken by the largest population in the area. For example, although the languages used in Taiwan include Taiwanese Hokkien, Taiwanese Hakka, and Taiwanese aboriginal However, since Taiwanese Hokkien is the mother tongue spoken by the most people in Taiwan, "Taiwanese" usually refers to "Taiwanese Hokkien (Taiwanese)". For another example, Fujian has Hokkien (Mindong, Minbei, Minzhong, Shaojiang, Puxian, Hokkien), Hakka, She, Manchu, Gan, Wu and other languages (Fujian language) , but most people use Hokkien, so usually "Fujian dialect" refers to "Min (Southern) language" (at this time, "Fujian dialect" is a dialect/variant relative to "Chinese", "Minnan dialect" "Yu" is an independent language in linguistics, and "Minyu" refers to the "Min language family" language family).

But in fact, the most common language in Haifeng and Lufeng is Hokkien, so "Hailu Dialect" usually refers to "Hailu Hokkien", and less often refers to "Hailu Hakka"; The term "Hailufenghua" is more commonly used, which is the combined name of "Haifenghua" and "Lufenghua" (although the two are highly similar, in some contexts, Haifenghua is Hailufenghua synonym). As for the "Four Counties", it is named artificially, not after a certain local area, so "Four Counties Dialect" really refers to "Four Counties Hakka Language" and there is no dispute.

In short, as long as the names related to "Sixian" (Sixian accent, Sixian dialect, Sixian dialect, etc.) It may refer to "Hailu Hokkien", it is better to add "Hakka" related words, such as "Hailu Hakka", "Hailu Hakka", "Hailu Hakka", "Hailu Hakka dialect" and so on , as the difference between "sea and land Hakka" and "sea and land Hokkien", but in fact, in some Taiwanese websites and documents, when only discussing the situation/context of Taiwan, it is still possible to use "sea and land dialect" To refer to Taiwan's "Hakka dialect" (for example, the Hakka dialect "Hakka dialect" on the website of the New Taipei City Hakka Language Center uses the term "Hakka dialect"), but it should be used sparingly to avoid confusion. The table below organizes the differences between the two when using the name "○○话".

Differences in the use of "○○话" in the four counties of Taiwan and Hailu Hakka

Classification	○○chapter		○○◻️◻️language		language	illustrate	difference
four counties	Four County Dialect	→	Hakka in four counties	↘	Hakka	✅ "Four Counties Hakka"CanIt is called "Four County Dialect".	❌ different
land and sea	Sea and land dialect	≠	Sea and land Hakka	↗		⚠️ "Land and Sea Hakka"try not toCalled "sea and land dialect".
		↘	Hailu Hokkien	→	Minnan Language	⚠️ "Hailu (Feng) Dialect" more often refers to "Hailu Hokkien".

As for "○○qiang", it is a common saying in Taiwan for various dialects under Taiwanese Hakka. Hailu Hakka", and "Dapu Dialect", "Raoping Dialect" (Raoping Hakka, Raoping Hakka), "Zhaoan Dialect" (Zhaoan Hakka, Zhangzhou Hakka, Minnan Hakka, Zhaoan guest) and so on.

Although the "Sixian Dialect" mentioned in the previous paragraph is "Four County Hakka Language", and "Hailu Dialect" usually refers to "Hailu Hokkien" and not "Hailu Hakka", but in Taiwan, if it is called "Hailu "Qiang" refers to "sea and land Hakka language".

This is because there is no "Hailu Hokkien dialect" in Taiwan, and "○○ accent" is only used in Taiwan, and "○○ accent" is usually not used in mainland China, so "Hailu accent" refers to It is "sea and land Hakka", not "sea and land Hokkien".

In short, whether it is the name of "Sixian Dialect" or "Hailu Dialect", both refer to the accent/dialect/variant under "Taiwanese Hakka". It is organized in a table below.

Differences in the use of "○○ accent" in the four counties of Taiwan and Hailu Hakka

Classification	○○cavity		○○◻️◻️language		language	illustrate	difference
four counties	Four County accent	→	Hakka in four counties	↘	Hakka	✅ "Sixian accent" refers to Taiwan's "Sixian Hakka language".	✅ same
land and sea	Sea and land accent	↗	Sea and land Hakka	↗		✅ "Hailu Dialect" refers to Taiwan's "Hakka Language".
		≠	Hailu Hokkien	→	Minnan Language	❌ "Hailu Hokkien" is not called "Hailu Dialect".

4.3 Differences in Geographical Distribution

Taiwan's four-county Hakka and Hailu Hakka are distributed in both northern (mainly) and eastern Taiwan, but the biggest geographical difference lies in the Liudui area in the south, where the population of Nansi counties is spoken, while Hailu is in the south. No distribution. The complete distribution of the four counties and Hailu in various parts of Taiwan is organized in the table below, and the distribution map of the accents of the Hakka language in Taiwan is attached.

Differences in Geographical Distribution of Hakka in Taiwan's Four Counties and Hailu

distributed		four counties	land and sea
Northern Taiwan	Taoyuan City	Zhongli, Pingzhen, Yangmei (partial), Longtan.	Guanyin, Xinwu, Yangmei (partial).
	Hsinchu County	Kansai (part), Emei (part).	Xinfeng, Xinpu, Hukou, Xionglin, Hengshan, Kansai (part), Beipu, Baoshan, Emei (part), Zhudong, Zhubei (part).
	Miaoli County	Miaoli City, Jianqiao, Gongguan, Toufen (part), Nanzhuang (part), Dahu, Tongluo, Sanyi, West Lake, Touwu, Zhuolan (most), Tongxiao (part), Houlong (part ).	Toufen (part), Nanzhuang (part), Houlong (part).
Eastern Taiwan	Taitung County	Chishang, Guanshan, Luye, Chenggong, Taimali, Beinan.	Hualien, Ji'an, Shoufeng, Guangfu, Yuli, Ruisui, Fenglin, Fuli, Xincheng.
	Hualien County	Ji'an, Hualien, Fuli.
Liudui area in southern Taiwan	Pingtung County	Zhutian, Wanluan, Neipu, Changzhi, Linluo, Xinpi, Jiadong, Gaoshu.
	kaohsiung city	Mino, Shanlin, Liugui.

Types/tones/dialects and distribution of Hakka in Taiwan

4.4 Differences in the number of users

According to statistics in 1993, about 2.366 million people used Taiwanese Hakka language. In 2016, the Hakka Committee conducted a survey on Taiwan Hakka population and language basic data. There are 7.3% in four counties, 44.8% in Hailu, 4.1% in Dapu, 2.6% in Raoping, and 1.7% in Zhao’an. At the same time, because the same person may handle more than one Hakka dialect/time dialect, so the sum of the statistics will exceed 100%.

Assuming that about 2.37 million people are the number of users of Hakka in Taiwan, and according to the proportion in the above-mentioned 2016 survey and study, the approximate number of users is estimated, and the proportion and number of users of the four counties and sea and land are arranged in the following table. Special attention is that this It is only an approximate reference value at present (2021). The proportion and number of people used will change with future changes in the number of people, and may become less accurate in the future.

Proportion and Number of Hakka Speakers in the Four Counties of Taiwan

Classification		Proportion	number of people
four counties	North four counties	58.4%	About 1,384,080 people
	Nansi County	7.3%	About 173,010 people
land and sea		44.8%	About 1,061,760 people

Proportion of Taiwan, Penghu, Jinma, and above six-year-olds who use Taiwanese Hakka language (multiple choice language) in the population of the towns and cities where they live (Executive Yuan, 2010)

4.5 Classification differences

In terms of the classification of the four counties and land and sea of Hakka in Taiwan, they are both Hakka languages of the Chinese family under the Sino-Tibetan language family.

In the "Chinese Language Atlas", the classification of the four counties is "Sino-Tibetan → Han Family → Cantonese and Taiwanese → Meihui Small → Four County Dialects"; while there are two classification methods for Hailu, refer to Chinese Social Sciences In the 1987 edition of the "Atlas of Chinese Language" co-edited by the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Australian Academy of the Humanities, it reads "Sino-Tibetan languages → Chinese family → Hakka → Cantonese and Taiwanese films → Xinhui small films → Hailu Hakka", but in the 2012 edition of "China In the "Language Atlas", it is divided into Cantonese and Taiwan films and listed as sea and land films, that is, the classification is changed to "Sino-Tibetan → Han family → Hakka → sea and land films", and sea and land films are Hailu Hakka languages. Cantonese and Taiwanese films are Cantonese and Taiwanese Hakka.

The Classification and Year Differences of the Four Counties of Taiwan and the Hakka Language Family in the Chinese Language Atlas

publishing	Classification
1987 Edition	Sino-Tibetan Chinese Hakka Cantonese and Taiwanese films (Cantonese and Taiwanese Hakka) Mei Hui small piece Four County Dialect Xinhui small piece Hakka
2012 edition	Sino-Tibetan Chinese Hakka Cantonese and Taiwanese films (Cantonese and Taiwanese Hakka) Mei Hui small piece Four County Dialect  Sea and land film (sea and land Hakka)

In Taiwan, Sixian and Hailu are classified as "Taiwanese Hakka", and Sixian and Hailu are dialects of Taiwanese Hakka, but many people in Taiwan often call them "accents", so The four counties and Hailu are called "Sixian Tune" and "Hailu Tune" respectively.

Classification of four counties and sea and land in the Hakka language family of Taiwan

Sino-Tibetan Chinese Hakka  Cantonese and Taiwan films (part) & Sea and land films (part) Taiwanese Hakka Four County accent Sea and land accent

Taiwan's four counties and Hailu Hakka can be further subdivided into many sub-dialects, and the four counties and Hailu have mutual influences to form the "Sihai Dialect". The following is a list of the dialect accents of the four counties and Hailu.

List of Tones in Taiwan's Four Counties and Hailu Hakka Dialects

language	Dialect accent		Remark
Taiwanese Hakka	Dialect of four counties	Wuluoci dialect	Pingtung
		Neipu sub-dialect	Pingtung
		Mino sub dialect	Kaohsiung
		Toufen dialect	Miaoli
		Longtan sub-dialect	Taoyuan
		Kansai sub-dialect	Hsinchu
	land and sea dialect	Zhudong sub dialect	Hsinchu
		Xinya sub dialect	Taoyuan
	Mixed dialects of four seas and four seas	Nanzhou sub-dialect	Pingtung
		Hualien sub-dialect	Hualien
		Fenglin sub-dialect	Hualien
		Mizuho subdialect	Hualien

4.6 Differences in writing systems

Hakka, like other Chinese families, most of the writing system can use the Chinese character system to write, and the writing system of Taiwanese Hakka language can not only use the Chinese character writing system, but also use Hakka vernacular characters to write. As for the phonetic marks (or phonetic symbols) there are Taiwanese dialect symbols, Taiwanese phonetic symbols scheme, Hakka universal pinyin, Taiwanese Hakka pinyin scheme, Cantonese pseudonyms (during the Japanese occupation period), etc., but many of them have been stopped or used in a very small number. The most commonly used and most common is the "Taiwan Hakka Pinyin Scheme" (in 2016, Nansi County dialect was added, the content description was adjusted, and changed to "Hakka Pinyin Scheme"), so the "Hakka Pinyin Scheme" is usually referred to as " (Taiwan) Hakka Pinyin Scheme", the same applies to this article. The following compares the differences in writing systems.

4.6.1 Differences in phonetic marks (phonetic symbols)

After learning Hakka Pinyin, you can know the pronunciation of Hakka. Taking the system of "(Taiwan) Hakka Pinyin Scheme", although most of them are the same in different tones/(sub)dialects, but There are slight differences.

If a certain phonetic symbol exists in a certain accent/(sub)dialect but not in another, this "difference of existence" is easy to understand and not easy to confuse. Like Hailu's voice has a low tone "v⁺⁽³³⁾", while the four counties do not; or Hailu has the apical surface sounds "zh, ch, sh, rh", but the four counties do not; or the four counties have the frontal sounds "j, q, x", but no Hailu did not. (These examples will be discussed in detail in later chapters, and are only mentioned here for illustration)

However, the "difference in phonetic symbols (phonetic symbols)" to be explained here refers to the different pronunciations of the same phonetic symbol in different dialects/(sub)dialects. For example, the tone symbol "ˋ" in the Hakka Pinyin scheme (the presentation method is "vˋ", and "v" is the final consonant), in the four counties it refers to the tone value "31" (the presentation method is "v³¹”), but in land and sea it is the tone value “53” (presented as “v⁵³").

All in all, although the "vˋ" in Hakka Pinyin looks the same in the four counties and Hailu, it has different tones. To come high. The following table sorts out the different tone values represented by "vˋ" in the four counties and Hailu, and the tone marks of the International Phonetic Alphabet ("v" stands for finals).

Differences between the four counties in Taiwan and the Hakka "vˋ"

Hakka	Tone (v is final)			Pronunciation difference
	Hakka Pinyin		International Phonetic Alphabet
	tone	Tone value	tone marks
four counties	v	v31	[v˧˩]	"Low" Falling
land and sea		v53	[v˥˧]	"high" falling tone

4.6.2 Explanation of the method of phonetic symbols (phonetic symbols) used in this article

Since the tone pattern "vˋ" of the Hakka Pinyin phonetic symbol may represent the tone value "v" of the four counties³¹” or “v” for sea and land⁵³", so the following phonetic transcription method of this article will try to adopt "Hakkyu Pinyin"^{Tone type (tone value)}/International Phonetic Alphabet/Phonetic Symbol” to mark the pronunciation, so as to avoid the possibility that the tone pattern “vˋ” may represent the tone value “v³¹" or " v⁵³’ causing confusion. The International Phonetic Alphabet can be used no matter which language it is, so there will be no confusion, and it can also help the understanding of linguistics.

As for the phonetic symbols, the extended "Taiwan dialect symbols" are used, which can help Taiwanese readers who are not familiar with the Hakka Pinyin or the International Phonetic Alphabet get familiar with the pronunciation more quickly, because most Taiwanese have learned phonetic symbols when they received compulsory education. symbols, so it can be a good auxiliary method. However, it should be noted that the "dialect symbols" will have more symbols than the original "phonetic symbols". In most cases, it is still understandable, because "dialects" are not the focus of this article. If you want to learn more about "dialect symbols" Readers can check relevant information online.

4.7 Pronunciation differences

The difference between the four counties and Hailu is not only the difference in the number of people, distribution, classification, etc. described in the above chapters, but the difference between the two is the part of pronunciation. The following content will discuss the four counties and Hailu in detail. Differences in various pronunciations such as initials, finals, tones, and tone sandhis.

4.7.1 Initial difference

Among the Hakka dialects of Taiwan's Hakka language, the four counties have 18 initial consonants, except for some Nansi counties (Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi, etc.) and some Zhao'an (Yunlin area) has 19 initial consonants, other Taiwanese Hakka accents/dialects including Hailu, Dapu, Raoping, Zhaoan (excluding Zhaoan in Yunlin) and so on have 22 initial consonants.

The table below lists all initial consonants of Taiwanese Hakka (including Sixian, Hailu, Dapu, Raoping, Zhaoan, etc.). and followed byGreen represents the initial consonants shared by the four counties and Hailu;Red is the initial consonant that exists in land and sea but not in four counties;Yellow is the initial consonant in four counties but not in Hailu; The initial consonants not marked with color represent the initial consonants that are not found in the four counties and Hailu, but are found in other Hakka dialects, or are not the focus of the discussion.

(The mobile phone board can slide left and right)

4.7.1.1 Differences in the number of initial consonants

According to the table of initial consonants of Taiwanese Hakka above, the 18 initial consonants possessed by the four counties can be found in other Taiwanese Hakka dialects (including Hailu, Dapu, Raoping, Zhaoan, etc.), while other Taiwanese Hakka The dialect has 1 or 4 more initials than Sixian, so Sixian is the one with the least number of initials. However, since this article mainly discusses the differences between "four counties" and "sea and land", the following will compare the initials of the two.

Initial consonant numbers of the four counties in Taiwan and the Hakka language in land and sea

Classification	four counties			land and sea
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other
number of initials	18	19	18	22

4.7.1.2 Presence of "j/[ʨ]/ㄐ", "q/[ʨʰ]/ㄑ", "x/[ɕ]/ㄒ" in front of the tongue

Although it was mentioned in the previous paragraph that the number of initial consonants in Sixian is only 18, in the previous table "Initial consonants of Hakka in Taiwan", Sixian actually has more "j／[ʨ]／ than other Hakka dialects. ㄐ", "q／[ʨʰ]／ㄑ", "x／[ɕ]／ㄒ", these three initials are called "frontal sounds", but why is it not 21 when calculating the number of initials (18 + 3 ) one? This is because the algorithm in linguistics is usually based on the "phoneme calculation method" (only each "phoneme" is calculated), and "phoneme" refers to the unit of speech that can distinguish semantics. Conversely, if a phonetic unit cannot distinguish semantics, it cannot be a phoneme.

The distribution of the three "frontal consonants" consonants of "j／[ʨ]／ㄐ", "q／[ʨʰ]／ㄑ" and "x／[ɕ]／ㄒ" in the four counties is similar to that of "z／[ ʦ]／ㄗ", "c／[ʦʰ]／ㄘ", and "s／[s]／ㄙ" these three initial consonants of "Apex of the tongue" present complementary pairing and complementary distribution (complementary distribution), that is, the former only appears The present front vowel (front vowel) "i/[i]/ㄧ" precedes the latter only before other vowels (vowels) other than the front vowel (front vowel).

In other words, due to the relationship of complementary pairing, "j/[ʨ]/ㄐ" and "z/[ʦ]/ㄗ" are the same phoneme, "q/[ʨʰ]/ㄑ" and "c/[ ʦʰ]／ㄘ” is the same phoneme, “x／[ɕ]／ㄒ” and “s／[s]／ㄙ” are the same phoneme. Furthermore, "z／[ʦ]／ㄗ", "c／[ʦʰ]／ㄘ", and "s／[s]／ㄙ" are distributed on a wider level and in more environments, so they can be regarded as the so-called "Basic phone", and "j／[ʨ]／ㄐ", "q／[ʨʰ]／ㄑ", "x／[ɕ]／ㄒ" only appear in "i／[i]／ㄧ ", so it can be regarded as "variant sound" (or called "alophone", "homophone", "phoneme variant", English:allophone).

In short, the Hakka language of the four counties has three more consonants: "j／[ʨ]／ㄐ", "q／[ʨʰ]／ㄑ", and "x／[ɕ]／ㄒ". From the perspective of "algorithm", it is regarded as the same phoneme as "z／[ʦ]／ㄗ", "c／[ʦʰ]／ㄘ", "s／[s]／ㄙ" and has no semantic meaning distinction. In Hailuke, there are only initials of "z／[ʦ]／ㄗ", "c／[ʦʰ]／ㄘ", and "s／[s]／ㄙ".

The Apical and Frontal Consonants of the Four Counties of Taiwan and the Hakka Languages of Sea and Land

apical frontal consonant and frontal lingual consonant	vocal part Pronunciation method			tip of tongue	palate	example word
				apical front sound	front of tongue	Chinese character
				Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation)	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
	Affricate	Voiceless	Not aspirated	z／[t͡s]／ㄗ	j／[t̠͡ɕ]／ㄐ	borrow, drink, receive
			aspirated	c／[t͡sʰ]／ㄘ	q／[t̠͡ɕʰ]／ㄑ	thanks, autumn, please
	fricative			s／[s]／ㄙ	x／[ɕ]／ㄒ	write, repair
Hakka dialect used	four counties			✅ Yes	✅ Yes, only before the front vowel "i／[i]Ｇ"
	land and sea			✅ Yes	❌ no

As a supplement, the complete pronunciations of the example characters in the above table with front tip of the tongue and front of the tongue are arranged in the table below.

The complete pronunciation of the example word

Classification sound category	example word	four counties	land and sea
	Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
unaspirated affricative	borrow	jia(55)／[t̠͡ɕja˥˥]／ㄐㄧㄚ	ziaˇ(11)／[t͡sja˩˩]／ㄗㄧㄚˇ
	liquor	jiu(31)／[t̠͡ɕju˧˩]／ㄐㄧㄨˋ	ziuˊ(24)／[t͡sju˨˦]／ㄗㄧㄨˊ
	catch	jiabˋ(2)／[t̠͡ɕjap̚˨]／ㄐㄧㄚㄅ	ziab(5)／[t͡sjap̚˥]／ㄗㄧㄚㄅ (．
aspirated affricate	Thanks	qia(55)／[t̠͡ɕʰja˥˥]／ㄑㄧㄚ	cia+(33)／[t͡sʰja˧˧]／ㄘㄧㄚ˫
	Autumn	qiu'(24)／[t̠͡ɕʰju˨˦]／ㄑㄧㄨˊ	ciu(53)／[t͡sʰju˥˧]／ㄘㄧㄨˋ
	please	qiang(31)／[t̠͡ɕʰjaŋ˧˩]／ㄑㄧㄤˋ	ciangˊ(24)／[t͡sʰjaŋ˨˦]／ㄘㄧㄤˊ
fricative	Write	xia(31)／[ɕja˧˩]／ㄒㄧㄚˋ	sia'(24)/[sja˨˦]/ㄙㄧㄚˊ
	build	xiuˊ(24)／[ɕju˨˦]／ㄒㄧㄨˊ	siu(53)／[sju˥˧]／ㄙㄧㄨˋ

4.7.1.3 Presence of Apical-Facial Consonance

From the above comparison of the number of initials in the four counties and Hailu, we can know that Hailu has 22 initials, while Sixian only has 18 initials (Nansi County has 19 initials). This is because Hailu has four more tongue tips. Face sounds (also known as lingular sounds): "zh/[t͡ʃ]/ㄓ", "ch/[t͡ʃʰ]/ㄔ", "sh/[ʃ]/ㄕ" and "rh/[ʒ]/ㄖ", The first three are unvoiced (or voiceless consonants), and the last one is voiced (or voiced consonants).

Apical frontal consonants and apical facial consonants in the four counties of Taiwan and Hakka languages from land and sea

Apical Frontal and Apical Facial Consonants	vocal part Pronunciation method			apical front sound	tip of tongue
				Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
	Affricate	Voiceless	Not aspirated	z／[ʦ]／ㄗ	en／[t͡ʃ]／ㄓ
			aspirated	c／[ʦʰ]／ㄘ	ch／[t͡ʃʰ]／ㄔ
	fricative			s／[s]／ㄙ	sh／[ʃ]／ㄕ
		voiced sound			rh／[ʒ]／ㄖ
Hakka dialect used	four counties			✅ Yes	❌ no
	land and sea			✅ Yes	✅ Yes

4.7.1.3.1 Presence of voiceless apical-face sounds "zh/[t͡ʃ]/ㄓ", "ch/[t͡ʃʰ]/ㄔ" and "sh/[ʃ]/ㄕ"

First of all, judging from the unvoiced front tongue sounds, only Hailu has the three sounds "zh／[t͡ʃ]／ㄓ", "ch／[t͡ʃʰ]／ㄔ", and "sh／[ʃ]／ㄕ". There are no counties. Words with unvoiced frontal sounds in Hailu are pronounced as frontal sounds "z／[ʦ]／ㄗ", "c／[ʦʰ]／ㄘ", and "s／[s]／ㄙ" in Sixian That is to say, the four counties have basically merged the opposing unvoiced apical consonants and unvoiced apical-facial consonants into one with only apical consonants.

A Comparison of the Presence and Absence of Voiceless Apical Consonants and Unvoiced Apical-Facial Consonants in Four Counties of Taiwan and Hakka Languages from Sea and Land

Classification sound category		four counties	land and sea	example word
		Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Chinese character
apical front soundandtip of tongue	unaspirated affricate	z／[t͡s]／ㄗ	z／[t͡s]／ㄗ	a. Rent, Zhuang, pick
			en／[t͡ʃ ]／ㄓ	b. pig, Zhang, only
	aspirated affricate	c／[t͡sʰ]／ㄘ	c／[t͡sʰ]／ㄘ	c. Fork, bed, chisel
			ch／[t͡ʃʰ]／ㄔ	d. car, intestine, and clothes
	fricative	s／[s]／ㄙ	s／[s]／ㄙ	e. peer, cool, fast
			sh／[ʃ]／ㄕ	f. Tongue, appreciation, uncle

As a supplement, the pronunciations of the examples of the above-mentioned anterior apical consonants and apical-surface consonants are arranged in the table below.

The complete pronunciation of the example word

Classification sound category		example word	four counties	land and sea
		Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
unaspirated affricate	a.	rent	zutwenty four)／[t͡su˨˦]／ㄗㄨˊ	zuˋ(53)／[t͡su˥˧]／ㄗㄨˋ
		village	the zongtwenty four)／[t͡soŋ˨˦]／ㄗㄛㆭˊ	the zongˋ(53)／[t͡soŋ˥˧]／ㄗㄛㆭˋ
		pick	zag2)／[t͡sak̚˨]／ㄗㄚㄍ	zag(5)／[t͡sak̚˥]／ㄗㄚㄍ (．)
	b.	pig	zutwenty four)／[t͡su˨˦]／ㄗㄨˊ	the zhuˋ(53)／[t͡ʃu˥˧]／ㄓㄨˋ
		open	the zongtwenty four)／[t͡soŋ˨˦]／ㄗㄛㆭˊ	the middleˋ(53)／[t͡ʃoŋ˥˧]／ㄓㄛㆭˋ
		Only	zag2)／[t͡sak̚˨]／ㄗㄚㄍ	zhag(5)／[t͡ʃak̚˥]／ㄓㄚㄍ (．
aspirated affricate	c.	cross	catwenty four)／[t͡sʰa˨˦]／ㄘㄚˊ	caˋ(53)／[t͡sʰa˥˧]／ㄘㄚˋ
		bed	congˇ(11)／[t͡sʰoŋ˩˩]／ㄘㄛㆭˇ	cong(55)／[t͡sʰoŋ˥˥]／ㄘㄛㆭ
		chisel	cam(55)／[t͡sʰam˥˥]／ㄘㄚㆬ	cam+(33)／[t͡sʰam˧˧]／ㄘㄚㆬ˫
	d.	car	catwenty four)／[t͡sʰa˨˦]／ㄘㄚˊ	chaˋ(53)／[t͡ʃʰa˥˧]／ㄔㄚˋ
		intestinal	congˇ(11)／[t͡sʰoŋ˩˩]／ㄘㄛㆭˇ	chong／[t͡ʃʰoŋ˥˥]／ㄔㄛㆭ
		write	cog(5)／[t͡sʰok̚˥]／ㄘㄛㄍ (．)	chog2)／[t͡ʃʰok̚˨]／ㄔㄛㄍ
fricative	e.	Peer	saˇ(11)／[sa˩˩]／ㄙㄚˇ	sa(55)／[sa˥˥]／ㄙㄚ
		Cool	the songˋ(31)/[soŋ˧˩]/ㄙㄛㆭˋ	the songtwenty four)/[soŋ˨˦]/ㄙㄛㆭˊ
		speed	sug2)／[suk̚˨]／ㄙㄨㄍ	sug(5)／[suk̚˥]／ㄙㄨㄍ (．)
	f.	tongue	sad(5)／[sat̚˥]／ㄙㄚㄉ ˙ (．)	shad2)／[ʃat̚˨]／ㄕㄚㄉ ˙
		reward	the songˋ(31)/[soŋ˧˩]/ㄙㄛㆭˋ	the shongtwenty four)／[ʃoŋ˨˦]／ㄕㄛㆭˊ
		uncle	sug2)／[suk̚˨]／ㄙㄨㄍ	shug(5)／[ʃuk̚˥]／ㄕㄨㄍ (．)
Remark: Polyphone open (1) Four counties: diongˊ(24); Sea and land: diongˋ(53). (2) Four counties: zongˊ(24); Sea and land: zhongˋ(53). car (1) Four counties: caˊ(24); Sea and land: chaˋ(53). (2) Four counties: giˊ(24); Sea and land: giˋ(53). write (1) Four counties: cog(5); Sea and land: chogˋ(2). (2) Four counties: dauˇ(11);Sea and land: dau(55). (3) Four counties: diauˇ(11); Land and sea: diau(55). (4) Four counties: doˋ(31); Sea and land: doˊ(24). (5) Four counties: zogˋ(2); Sea and land: zhog(5). (6) Four counties: zu(55); Sea and land: zhuˇ(11).

4.7.1.3.2 The correspondence between voiceless apical front sounds "z/[ʦ]/ㄗ", "c/[ʦʰ]/ㄘ", "s/[s]/ㄙ" and voiceless apical-face sounds

Carefully observe the previous paragraph (the presence or absence of unvoiced front-tongue sounds), and it can be found that Hakka in the four counties only has apical-frontal sounds, while Hailu Hakka has apical-frontal sounds in addition to apical-frontal sounds, that is to say, Hakka In Hakka dialects (such as: Hailu, Raoping, Zhao'an, etc.) that start with the initial consonant of "the tip of the tongue ○", they are divided into two pronunciations. This situation is referred to in the literature as the former being the confluence of Jingzhuang and Zhizhang, while the latter is the separation of Jingzhuang and Zhizhang.

From this, it can be found that the Chinese characters with tip-of-tongue-face sounds in Hailu Hakka are found in "mostIn the case of ", it seems to correspond to the Chinese apical back sound (retroflex sound). That is to say, when learning Hailuk, you can use the tongue-rolling pronunciation of Chinese to memorize the Chinese characters with the initial consonant of "Tip of the tongue ○", and pronounce the tip of the tongue (tongue-curling sound) in Hailuk. (The difference between the tip of the tongue and the back of the tongue will be explained and supplemented in detail in the next section)

But in fact, andnoThe back-of-the-tongue sound (retroflex sound) of Chinese speakers and the tip-of-the-tongue sound (curling tongue sound) of the Hakka language are absolutely corresponding. For example, the three Chinese characters "table, tea, and singing" are pronounced at the back of the tongue (retroflex sound) in Chinese, but in Hailu Hakka, they are pronounced at the front of the tongue (flat tongue) like Sixian Hakka ; for another example, the Chinese character "mouth" is pronounced in front of the tongue (flat tongue sound) in Chinese and Sixian Hakka, but only in Hailu Hakka is it pronounced in the tip of the tongue (curling tongue sound); there is also "zhi In Chinese, these two Chinese characters are pronounced in front of the tongue (flat tongue sound), but in Sixian Hakka and Hailu Hakka, they are pronounced in the middle tone of the tip of the tongue. (There will be a more detailed corresponding table later)

In short, there is not a 100% correspondence between Hakka in the four counties, Hakka in Hailu, and Mandarin in the "point of the tongue ○ sound". Although in most cases, the tip of the tongue (retroflex) in Chinese can be used to help memorize the tip of the tongue (curling) in Hailuk, there are still a few exceptions to be aware of. For the above-mentioned examples of Chinese characters that cannot be matched, the following table compares the corresponding relationship of "tongue tip ○ sound" in the four-county Hakka, Hailu Hakka, and Chinese, and uses the tableDark green represents the anterior consonants of the tongue,Light green represents the midrange on the tip of the tongue,Light red represents the tip of the tongue,Crimson represents the posterior sound of the tip of the tongue, to show identification and correspondence (color shades are relative, not absolute). In addition, in the Taiwanese and Beijing parts of the Chinese language, the Chinese pinyin and the phonetic symbols are the same, the main difference lies in the difference in the international phonetic symbols, that is, the actual pronunciation is different (except for the difference in the initial consonants in the international phonetic symbols of the Taiwanese sounds , the tone value is also changed to the pronunciation of most Taiwanese, and because the tone marks of the International Phonetic Alphabet are not obvious on the web page, the following table displays the tone value of the numbers above the tone marks of the International Phonetic Alphabet for easy identification, but the International Phonetic Alphabet is usually will not additionally display the digital tone value above the tone mark, which is specially explained here).

(On the mobile version, you can swipe up, down, left, and right on the screen of the following table)

From the table above, we can see that, in addition to the incomplete correspondence between the tip of the tongue (retroflex sound) in Chinese and the tip of the tongue (curling tongue sound) in the Hakka language of the four counties, it is also impossible to say exactly which word group is in the four counties. When reading the tip of the tongue (flat tongue sound), in Hailu Hakka, it must be pronounced as the tip of the tongue (twisted tongue) (for example: table, tea), that is to say, the unvoiced front of the tongue and the voiceless sound of Sixian and Hailu Unvoiced apical and facial sounds cannot be fully corresponded.

At the same time, it cannot be said that because the Hakka language of the four counties has no tip-of-the-tongue sound (curling tongue sound), the sound of the tip-of-the-tongue back sound (retroflex sound) in Chinese must be pronounced in the Hakka language of the four counties. (for example: zhi, chang); there are even cases where the sound of the front of the tongue (flat tongue) is pronounced in Chinese but it is pronounced as the sound of the tip of the tongue (curling tongue) in Hailu Hakka ( Example: mouth).

In addition, in the Hakka language of the four counties and the Hakka language of Hailu, the initial consonants of the two characters "zhi, chang" are pronounced with the tip of the tongue middle sound "d／[t]／ㄉ" (for example: Zhi) or "t／[tʰ] ／ㄊ” (for example: 昭) seems to be due to the finals behind the initial consonant (for example: zhi) or intermediary consonants (for example: chang) to make the sound “i/[i]/ㄧ”, but on the other hand, Hailuke When the finals (for example: straight, teeth) or intermediaries (for example: pumping, ugly) pronounce "i/[i]/ㄧ", the initial consonant does not produce the middle sound "d/[t]/ㄉ" Or "t／[tʰ]／ㄊ", so when we only look at the Hakka language of the four counties, it seems that the rules for pronouncing the middle tone of the tip of the tongue can be correct, but if we consider the Hakka language of Hailu, there is no certain rule.

Therefore, it is still impossible to find out any completely fixed logic and rules to fully present the law of correspondence or separation of "Apex of Tongue ○ Yin" among Hakka, Hailu Hakka, and Chinese. Therefore, although most situations can still be memorized according to certain rules, you should not be too arbitrarily arbitrarily pronounced, because it does not necessarily correspond to 100%, so it is best to remember to look it up when judging or learning Hakka A dictionary is more appropriate.

4.7.1.3.3 [Supplement] The difference between the tip of the tongue ○ sound: the sea and the land have tongue curling but no tongue rolling

In the previous section, when we learned about the correspondence between the unvoiced tip-of-tongue sound and the unvoiced tip-of-the-tongue sound, we compared the tip-of-the-tongue sound of Hailu Hakka (lingual lobe, tongue-turning sound) and the Chinese The two tones are listed separately. Many people will mistakenly think that the two tones are the same, but they are actually two different tones. There is also information on the Internet that one of the biggest differences between Hakka Hakka in the four counties and Hakka in Hailu is that the former does not have a tongue roll while the latter has it. However, the meaning of the tongue roll mentioned here is different from the Chinese tongue roll. The following will be slow Let’s talk about it slowly, as a supplementary explanation to the previous section. However, since the purpose of this article is to discuss the differences between the four counties and Hailu, if readers are not interested in the differences between Hailu and Chinese, you can skip this section, and it will not help you understand the purpose of this article. Influence.

Hiukatip of tongue(akatongue lobe, because the tip of the tongue is the tongue leaf) is the pronunciation of the tongue flattened up and touching the upper gums, so it is narrowly calledtongue-in-cheek, a more academic way of saying is "the sound formed by the part between the tip of the tongue and the front of the tongue touching the upper gum" (the part between the tip of the tongue and the front of the tongue is the tip of the tongue, and the upper gum is the position between the back of the teeth and the front of the hard palate) ; while Chineseback of the tongueIt is the pronunciation of rolling the tongue back and touching the front hard palate, so it is also narrowly calledRetroflex, a more academic term is "the sound formed by the tip of the tongue rolling up and touching the front hard palate".

As for why it is specifically said to be "narrow sense" or "narrow sense" retroflex? This is because in many Chinese families (including Hailu Hakka, Chinese, etc.), the tip of the tongue and the back of the tongue are regarded as the same phoneme, and there is no semantic distinction, which is what we usually call The generalized "retroflex" may sometimes include the tip of the tongue or the tip of the tongue. Conversely, if the distinction is not strictly made, the generalized "retroflex" may also include the tip of the tongue or the tip of the back of the tongue, that is, unless otherwise specified , many people may regard "tongue-up" and "tongue-rolling" as the same pronunciation, even if they can hear the difference, they don't make a special distinction.

For example, in Taiwan, when most Taiwanese refer to "retroflex sound" (in a broad sense), most of the Chinese they may speak in their mouths is the tip-of-the-tongue-face sound (in the narrow sense) rather than the back-of-the-tongue sound ( Retroflex sound in the narrow sense), so even if the retroflex sound (in the broad sense) does not sound so rolly, it is the so-called tongue-reflex in the narrow sense (here refers to the situation of distinguishing between flat tongue and tongue-reflex, For example, in formal occasions such as news broadcasts, reading competitions, etc., it is not the case that many people do not distinguish between flat tongue and rolling tongue, and all speak flat tongue), so it does not sound like the official rolling tongue in mainland China , the tongue really rolls back, not just upturned, that is, tongue rolling in a narrow sense. In short, these two sounds have different pronunciation methods and positions, but although the focus of this section is to clarify the difference between the tip of the tongue and the back of the tongue, but because the previous section also mentionedapical front sound(akaApical silk sound)andApex alto, so the following table will sort out the definitions and pronunciation parts of all "Apex of Tongue ○".

An explanation of the articulation parts of the anterior consonant, the middle consonant, the posterior consonant and the facial consonant

name		definition	Articulation		example
			initiative	passive	) Pinyin/phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
Apical sound	apical front sound	The tip of the tongue presses forward against the sound formed by the back of the upper teeth.	tip of tongue	upper tooth back	z／[t͡s]／ㄗ c／[t͡sʰ]／ㄘ s／[s]／ㄙ z／[z]／ dz／[d͡z]／ㆡ
	Apex alto	The sound formed when the tip of the tongue touches the upper gums upwards.	tip of tongue	upper gum	d／[t]／ㄉ t／[tʰ]／ㄊ n／[n]／ㄋ l／[l]／ㄌ /[d]/
	back of the tongue	The sound formed when the tip of the tongue rolls up and touches the front hard palate.	tip of tongue	front hard palate	en／[ʈ͡ʂ]／ㄓ ch／[ʈ͡ʂʰ]／ㄔ sh／[ʂ]／ㄕ r／[ʐ]／ㄖ
Apical and facial sounds (lobular sounds)		The sound formed by the part between the tip of the tongue and the front of the tongue touching the upper gums.	tip of tongue	upper gum	en／[t͡ʃ]／ㄓ ch／[t͡ʃʰ]／ㄔ sh／[ʃ]／ㄕ rh／[ʒ]／ㄖ

In addition, Taiwanese Chinese is called "Mandarin" internally, and Chinese in Mainland China is called "Mandarin" internally. The following article will describe "Taiwanese Chinese" and "Chinese in Mainland China" to clarify the differences between various Chinese languages. difference (because there are references to Malaysian Chinese, Singaporean Chinese, etc.). Back to the topic, although the official retroflex sound (in a broad sense) of mainland Chinese is the tip of the tongue, and the same is true for most northern Han Chinese, but the accents and accents in other places (in a broad sense) ) may be pronounced as tip-of-the-tongue-face (narrow-sense tongue-rolling sound), such as Taiwanese Chinese, Malaysian Chinese, Singaporean Chinese, and Chinese mainland Chinese of some southern Han people, etc., are all pronounced as a generalized tongue-rolling sound that is not so rolly sound (that is, pronounced into a narrow sense of tongue-tipping sound, tip of the tongue and face sound).

This is why some people pronounce the retroflex in a broad sense more curlyly while others pronounce it less curlyly, because they are two different pronunciations, but they both refer to the same phoneme and Chinese character without distinguishing the meaning of the word. It is important to note here that what the author is talking about here is that there is a distinction between flat and tongue-rolling or flat and tongue-curling situations, such as news broadcasts, reading competitions, Chinese exams, Chinese teaching (written) and other formal occasions. But generally in Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong (Hong Kong Pu (Hong Kong Mandarin) ), parts of southern China (eg:Min Pu (Fujian Mandarin) ,broad spectrum (Cantonese Mandarin) etc.) and other Chinese languages, in daily life (informal occasions), many people have basically pronounced all tongue-rolling or tongue-rolling into flat-tongue sounds, that is, they do not distinguish between flat-rolled and flat-rolled tongues. The "Tip ○ sound" sounds from the flattest to the most curled, respectively, the front sound of the tip of the tongue → the middle sound of the tip of the tongue → the surface sound of the tip of the tongue → the back sound of the tip of the tongue. The following will be presented in a table form from top to bottom. The degree of volume, and explain the tongue placement, name, pronunciation, color corresponding to the previous section, and the language/dialect/representative sound used.

The degree of tongue roll of each tip ○ sound and the language used in this chapter and its representative color

Tongue rolling degree	tongue placement	consonant name	) Pinyin/phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	color	Languages/dialects/accents used
↑ flat   roll ↓	flat tongue	apical front sound	z／[t͡s]／ㄗ c／[t͡sʰ]／ㄘ	dark green	Hakka in four counties, Hakka in sea and land, Taiwanese Chinese, Chinese in mainland China, etc.
		Apex alto	d／[t]／ㄉ t／[tʰ]／ㄊ	light green	Hakka in four counties, Hakka in sea and land, Taiwanese Chinese, Chinese in mainland China, etc.
	Tongue up	Apical and facial sounds (lobular sounds)	en／[t͡ʃ]／ㄓ ch／[t͡ʃʰ]／ㄔ	light red	Hailu Hakka, Taiwanese Mandarin (for formal occasions) and so on.
	Tongue rolling	back of the tongue	en／[ʈ͡ʂ]／ㄓ ch／[ʈ͡ʂʰ]／ㄔ	deep red	Chinese in mainland China (most of the north and some of the south) and so on.

As for why Ling Ling always talks so much about the difference between the tip of the tongue (the narrow-sense warped tongue) and the tip-of-the-tongue (the narrow sense of the retroflex) in Chinese, it is because Hailuke only has the tip of the tongue (the narrow sense of the tongue). Apical consonants), and there are no apical consonants (narrowly retroflexed), so before clarifying the apical-surface sounds of Hailuke, we must first understand the difference between the tip-surface consonants and the apical-retroconsonants. Therefore, even if the broad-sense retroflex sound in Chinese is pronounced as tip-of-tongue or tip-back in different regions, it is only pronounced as tip-of-tongue in Hailu Hakka. Please keep your tongue flat, and you don’t need to push your tongue back. Instead of rolling it up, you only need to curl your tongue up slightly.

In addition, in addition to Hailu Hakka, which has tip-of-the-tongue sounds, other Hakka languages (such as Raoping Hakka, Zhaoan Hakka, etc.), and other Chinese families (such as Cantonese, Guangzhou, Wu, Ningbo, etc.) etc.), or other foreign languages (for example: English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, etc.) also have this sound.

4.7.1.3.4 Presence of the voiced apical-facial sound "rh/[ʒ]/ㄖ": friction before the zero initial of the front high vowel

The above two sections introduced the unvoiced "z／[ʦ]／ㄗ", "c／[ʦʰ]／ㄘ", "s／[s]／ㄙ" and the voiced sound "zh／[ After t͡ʃ]／ㄓ", "ch／[t͡ʃʰ]／ㄔ", and "sh／[ʃ]／ㄕ", the last sound that affects Hakka Hakka in four counties and Hakka Hakka with different numbers of consonants is left, which is the next The voiced apical-facial sound "rh／[ʒ]／ㄖ" will be introduced in this section.

First of all, the voiced tip-of-the-tongue sound "rh／[ʒ]／ㄖ" only appears in Hailu Hakka, and there is no such sound in Sixian Hakka, that is, it only appears before the zero initial of the front high vowel in Hailu Hakka Friction. The front high vowel is the sound of "i／[i]Ｇ". The zero initial means that there is no initial consonant before the final, and the fricative here is the voiced sound of sea and land "rh／[ʒ]／ ㄖ".

However, in the Hakka languages of Gaoshu, Jiadong, and Xinpi counties in the south, the fricative before the zero initial of the front high vowel is the so-calledStepmother(akamedium sound,rhyme, referring to the sounds of "i/[j]/ㄧ", "u/[w]/ㄨ", "ü, yu/[ɥ]/ㄩ" before the final, "i/[j]/ㄧ" Sound (intermediate consonants cannot become independent initial consonants or finals, which are different from finals "i/[i]/ㄧ", "u/[u]/ㄨ", "ü, yu/[y]/ㄩ", And unlike the general weakening of vowels that act as codas, intermediate sounds require full and clear pronunciation, and a stable and accurate tongue position. Compared with main vowels, they are usually only shorter in length and weaker in strength).

As for the Hakka languages of the four northern counties and some of the Hakka languages of the four southern counties except Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi, etc., there is no friction before the zero initial of the front high vowel, so the front high vowel "i／[i] is pronounced directly. /ㄧ" is enough. In short, only Hailu Hakka has the voiced tip of the tongue "rh／[ʒ]／ㄖ", while Sixian does not. The following will take the Chinese characters "医" and "姨" as examples, and draw them into a table.

A comparison of the presence or absence of voiced frontal sounds in the four counties of Taiwan and Hakka from land and sea, as well as examples and complete pronunciations

Classification example word	four counties			land and sea
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other
Chinese character	PinyinHakka/phonetic symbolsinternationality/symbolPhonetic notation	PinyinHakka/phonetic symbolsinternationality/symbolPhonetic notation	PinyinHakka/phonetic symbolsinternationality/symbolPhonetic notation	PinyinHakka/phonetic symbolsinternationality/symbolPhonetic notation
	i／[i]／ㄧ	r／[j]／ㄧ	i／[i]／ㄧ	rh ／ [ʒ] ／ ㄖ
medical	itwenty four)/[i˨˦]/ㄧˊ	the ritwenty four)/[ji˨˦]/一ㄧˊ	itwenty four)/[i˨˦]/ㄧˊ	rhyˋ(53)／[ʒi˥˧]／ㄖㄧˋ
Aunt	iˇ(11)/[i˩˩]/ㄧˇ	the riˇ(11)／ [ji˩˩]／一ㄧˇ	iˇ(11) /[i˩˩]/ㄧˇ	rhy(55)／[ʒi˥˥]／ㄖㄧ
rain	iˋ(31)/[i˧˩]/ㄧˋ	the riˋ(31)／[ji˧˩]／一ㄧˋ	iˋ(31)/[i˧˩]/ㄧˋ	rhi'(24)／[ʒi˨˦]／ㄖㄧˊ
meaning	i(55)/[i˥˥]/ㄧ	the ri(55)/[ji˥˥]/one by one	i(55)/[i˥˥]/ㄧ	rhiˇ(11)／[ʒi˩˩]／ㄖㄧˇ
one	id2)/[it̚˨]/ㄧㄉ ˙	riddled2)／[jit̚˨]／一ㄧㄉ ˙	id2)/[it̚˨]/ㄧㄉ ˙	rhid(5)／[ʒit̚˥]／ㄖㄧㄉ ˙．
wing	id(5)/[it̚˥]/ㄧㄉ ˙．	riddled(5)／[jit̚˥]／一ㄧㄉ ˙．	id(5)/[it̚˥]/ㄧㄉ ˙．	rhid(2)／[ʒit̚˨]／ㄖㄧㄉ ˙
Remarks: The "ㄧ" in the phonetic symbol does not distinguish between the consonant and the final, so this table uses "one" to represent the consonant to facilitate the distinction.

4.7.1.4 The labial-dental correspondence of the word "话": the variation and rules of voiced "f/[f]/ㄈ" and voiced "v/[v]/ㄪ"

The word "话" has "fa" in the Hakka dialect of the four counties.⁽⁵⁵⁾／[fa˥˥]／ㄈㄚ" and "va⁽⁵⁵⁾／[va˥˥]／ㄪㄚ" in two ways, but in Hailu Hakka there is "faˇ⁽¹¹⁾/[fa˩˩]/ㄈㄚˇ", "va⁺⁽³³⁾/[va˧˧]/ㄪㄚ˫", "voiˋ⁽⁵³⁾／[voi˥˧]／ㄪㄛㄧˋ "These three pronunciations. However, Hailu's "voiˋ⁽⁵³⁾／[voi˥˧]／ㄪㄛㄧˋ "is only used in the word "speech", and the other pronunciations follow the same rules as the four counties. The rules are organized in the following table.

Pronunciation of the word "Hua" in the four counties of Taiwan and the Hakka languages from land and sea

"话" word	four counties	land and sea	explain	example
serial number	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
words (1)	fa(55)／[fa˥˥]／ㄈㄚ	faˇ(11)／[fa˩˩]／ㄈㄚˇ	Speech, language.	good words.
words (2)	va(55)/[va˥˥]/ㄪㄚ	va+(33)/[va˧˧]/ㄪㄚ˫	1. to persuade, advise.	persuasion.
			2. Think, think.	talking.
words (3)		voiˋ(53)／[voi̯˥˧]／ㄪㄛㄧˋ	Phrases, vocabulary or sayings expressed by language.	speak.

However, this rule is compiled with reference to the "Taiwanese Hakka Dictionary". The Hakka language of the four counties on the website does not have the pronunciation of "Hua (3)", but in Hakka languages such as Hailu, Dapu, Raoping, and Zhaoan There is this sound in it. Furthermore, if you continue to search for the word "speech", there is no such entry, but there will be such words as "it's easy to talk without tongue", "it's better to suck phosphine for a fine man, it's better to talk to a fool", and "talk nonsense". There are three relatively similar entries. I wonder if it is because the word "speech" in the Hakka language of the four counties uses a different vocabulary? Or is it just that the website is not included?

However, in the book "Introduction to Taiwan Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition" written by Zhong Rongfu (2017), it is stated that "the "speech" in Raoping of Zhuolan and the Hakka of Zhao'an in Yunlin both say "telling things". .Other dialects say "fa⁽⁵⁵⁾／[fa˥˥]／ㄈㄚ”, the only exception is the Hakka dialect of sea and land, use 『voiˋ⁽⁵³⁾／[voi̯˥˧]／ㄪㄛㄧˋ 』, but this should be limited to the Hailu dialect in the Zhudong area. Other Hailu dialects, such as Zhuolan’s Laozhuangli and Taoyuan’s Yangmei, still use 『faˇ⁽¹¹⁾／[fa˩˩]／ㄈㄚˇ” to represent “话””. Therefore, unlike the word "话" in the "Taiwanese Hakka Dictionary" which does not have the pronunciation of the Hakka language of the four counties, Zhong Rongfu (2017) believed in his work that the "话" of the Hakka language of the four counties can be pronounced as "fa⁽⁵⁵⁾/[fa˥˥]/ㄈㄚ" sound.

In addition, Zhong Rongfu (2017) also explained in his book: "Say "话" as "voiˋ⁽⁵³⁾／[voi̯˥˧]／ㄪㄛㄧˋ” may be influenced by Hokkien, because the pronunciation of the two is similar, and other letters of “f/[f]/ㄈ” except “话” are even in Zhudong The Hailu Hakka dialect and the "f/[f]/ㄈ" letters in the four counties and other dialects still maintain a regular correspondence."

In short, only in the word "speech" in Hailuke, it is possible for "voiˋ⁽⁵³⁾／[voi̯˥˧]／ㄪㄛㄧˋ" pronunciation, other situations and the Hakka language of the four counties do not have this sound. For example, the two words "Hua" and "Hua" that have similar pronunciations to "Hua" have the same corresponding rules in Sixian and Hailu Hakka, and there is no exception like "Hua". The arrangement is as follows surface.

Correspondence between the four counties in Taiwan and the characters with labial-tooth sounds in Hakka

example word	four counties	land and sea
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
flower	fa'(24)/[fa˨˦]/ㄈㄚˊ	fa(53)／[fa˥˧]／ㄈㄚˋ
change	fa(55)／[fa˥˥]／ㄈㄚ	fa(11)／[fa˩˩]／ㄈㄚˇ

4.7.2 Differences in finals

In the last chapter discussing initial consonants, we learned that the biggest difference between the initial consonants of Sixian and Hailuhak is whether there is a difference in the front consonant of the tip of the tongue (palatization) and the consonant of the tip of the tongue (curling tongue), which also results in the difference in the number of consonants , but even so, there can still be some degree of conversion.

But what the next chapter will talk about is the difference of "finals". The difference between the finals will be more difficult to understand than the difference between the initials. corresponding to.

For example, the word "monkey" is pronounced as "heuˇ" in Sixian and Hailuke respectively.⁽¹¹⁾／[heu˩˩]／ㄏㄝㄨˇ" and "heu⁽⁵⁵⁾／[heu˥˥]／ㄏㄝㄨ" (the difference between the initials and the finals is not big, the main difference lies in the tone value), but the word "miao" is pronounced as "meu" in the four counties⁽⁵⁵⁾／[meu˥˥]／ㄇㄝㄨ", but in sea and land, it is pronounced as "miau⁺⁽³³⁾／[miau˧˧]／ㄇㄧㄠ˫", such a difference is likely to be one of the most difficult reasons for communicating with each other.

However, although the difference in initial consonants between Sixian and Hailu is due to the presence or absence of some initial consonants, the difference in finals is reflected in the arrangement and combination of finals. The difference between the two will be explored in detail below for the reader.

4.7.2.1 closed central unrounded vowel"ii/[ɨ]/ㆨ" is divided and combinedclosed front unrounded vowelCorrespondence of "i/[i]/ㄧ"

Most languages, including Hakkafront high vowelmiddleclosed front unrounded vowelThe sound of "i／[i]Ｇ", but only some (most) Hakka languages (of course including Sixian and Hailu) have itapical vowelmiddleclosed central unrounded vowelThe sound of "ii／[ɨ]／ㆨ".

Although the closed central unrounded vowel "ii／[ɨ]／ㆨ" mostly appears after the front apical or apical surface sound, sometimes the closed front unrounded vowel "i／[ i]/ㄧ" sound.

For example, the five Chinese characters "Zi, Chi, Shi, Vinegar, and Zi" are all pronounced with the closed central unrounded vowel "ii/[ɨ]/ㆨ" in the Hakka languages of the four counties and some southern four counties. However, in the Hakka languages of Gaoshu, Jiadong, and Xinpi counties, all of the Hakka dialects are pronounced with the closed front unrounded vowel "i/[i]/ㄧ"; and in Hailu Hakka, "Zi The three Chinese characters ", vinegar, and son" are pronounced with the closed central unrounded vowel "ii／[ɨ]／ㆨ", while the two Chinese characters "chi, feces" are pronounced with the closed front unrounded vowel The sound of "i／[i]Ｇ".

It can be seen that the closed front unrounded vowel "i／[i]Ｇ" and the closed central unrounded vowel "ii／[ɨ]／ㆨ" after the apical front consonant or the apical facial consonant are found in Sixian and Nansi There is no 100% correspondence between Hakka dialects such as county and Hailu, especially Hailu itself has two pronunciations at the same time. This is something to pay attention to. The correspondence between the two is organized into a table below.

Correspondence between closed front unrounded vowels and closed central unrounded vowels in Taiwan's four counties and Hailu Hakka

Classification example word	four counties			land and sea
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
capital	ziitwenty four)／[t͡sɨ˨˦]／ㄗˊ	ji'(24)／[t̠͡ɕi˨˦]／ㄐㄧˊ	ziitwenty four)／[t͡sɨ˨˦]／ㄗˊ	ziiˋ(53)／[t͡sɨ˥˧]／ㄗˋ
pool	ciiˇ(11)／[t͡sʰɨ˩˩]／ㄘˇ	qiˊ／[t̠͡ɕʰi˨˦]／ㄑㄧˊ	ciiˇ(11)／[t͡sʰɨ˩˩]／ㄘˇ	chi(55)／[t͡ʃʰi˥˥]／ㄔㄧˋ
shit	siiˋ(31)/[sɨ˧˩]/ㄙˋ	xiˋ(31)／[ɕi˧˩]／ㄒㄧˋ	siiˋ(31)/[sɨ˧˩]/ㄙˋ	the shtwenty four)／[ʃi˨˦]／ㄕㄧˊ
vinegar	cii(55)／[t͡sʰɨ˥˥]／ㄘ	qi(55)／[t̠͡ɕʰi˥˥]／ㄑㄧ	cii(55)／[t͡sʰɨ˥˥]／ㄘ	siiˇ(11)/[sɨ˩˩]/ㄙˇ
son	ziiˋ(31)／[t͡sɨ˧˩]／ㄗˋ	ji(31)／[t̠͡ɕi˧˩]／ㄐㄧˋ	ziiˋ(31)／[t͡sɨ˧˩]／ㄗˋ	ziitwenty four)／[t͡sɨ˨˦]／ㄗˊ
Remark: Polyphone shit (1) Four counties: siiˋ(31); Sea and land: shiˊ(24). (2) Four counties: sii(55);Sea and land: shi+(33). vinegar (1) Four counties: cii(55);Sea and land: siiˇ(11). (white reading) (2) Four counties: cu(55); Sea and land: cuˇ(11). (text reading) Literature difference "Vinegar" is pronounced differently Hailu: "siiˇ(11)／[sɨ˩˩]／ㄙˇ". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". Hailu: "ciiˇ(11)／[t͡sʰɨ˩˩]／ㄘˇ". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition".

In addition, the closed central unrounded vowel "ii／[ɨ]／ㆨ" plus the final consonant final can only be found in the northern four counties, some southern four counties (the southern four counties other than Gaoshu, Jiadong, and Xinpi), Hailu Only then. For example, the four Chinese characters "zhi, zhi, zhen, zhi" in the Hakka languages of the four northern counties and some of the four southern counties all have closed central unrounded vowels "ii／[ɨ]／ㆨ" plus a consonant ending "n／ [n]／ㄋ", "t／[t]／ㄊ", "m／[m]／ㄇ", "p／[p]／ㄆ". for explanation.

The Presence and Correspondence of Closed Central Unrounded Vowels Plus Consonant Rhyme Finals in Taiwan's Four Counties and Hailu Hakka

Classification example word	four counties			land and sea
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other	Zhuolan	other
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
real	ziintwenty four)／[t͡sɨn˨˦]／ㄗㄣˊ	jintwenty four)／[t̠͡ɕin˨˦]／ㄐㄧㄣˊ	ziintwenty four)／[t͡sɨn˨˦]／ㄗㄣˊ	jinˋ(53)／[t̠͡ɕin˥˧]／ㄐㄧㄣˋ	zhinˋ(53)／[t͡ʃin˥˧]／ㄓㄧㄣˋ
position	ziid2)／[t͡sɨt̚˨]／ㄗㄉ ˙	jid2)／[t̠͡ɕit̚˨]／ㄐㄧㄉ ˙	ziid2)／[t͡sɨt̚˨]／ㄗㄉ ˙		(see note)
Needle	ziimtwenty four)／[t͡sɨm˨˦]／ㄗㆬˊ	jimtwenty four)／[t̠͡ɕim˨˦]／ㄐㄧㆬ	ziimtwenty four)／[t͡sɨm˨˦]／ㄗㆬ		zhimˋ(53)／[t͡ʃim˥˧]／ㄓㄧㆬˋ
juice	ziib2)／[t͡sɨp̚˨]／ㄗㄅ	jib2)／[t̠͡ɕip̚˨]／ㄐㄧㄅ	ziib2)／[t͡sɨp̚˨]／ㄗㄅ	jib(5)／[t̠͡ɕip̚˥]／ㄐㄧㄅ (．	(see note)
Remark: Literature difference "job" is pronounced differently Sea and land (other): "zhid(5)／[t͡ʃit̚˥]／ㄓㄧㄉ ˙ (．". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". Sea and land (other): "ziid(5)／[t͡sɨt̚˥]／ㄗㄉ ˙". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition". "juice" is pronounced differently Sea and land (other): "zhib(5)／[t͡ʃip̚˥]／ㄓㄧㄅ (．". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". Sea and land (other): "ziib(5)／[t͡sɨp̚˥]／ㄗㄅ (．". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition".

4.7.2.2 The presence and correspondence of the finals "ian/[jan]/ㄧㄚㄣ" and "ien/[jen]/ㄧㄝㄣ"

The finals "ian/[jan]/ㄧㄚㄣ" and "ien/[jen]/ㄧㄝㄣ" also have different corresponding distributions in Hakka Hakka and Hailu Hakka. For example, the finals of the three Chinese characters "天、年、电" are pronounced "ian/[jan]/ㄧㄚㄣ" in the Hakka languages of the four northern counties and the Hakka languages of the four southern counties such as Gaoshu, Jiadong, and Xinpi. However, in some Hakka languages of Nansi counties (Hakka dialects of Nansi counties other than Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi, etc.), Hailu Hakka speaks the sound of "ien/[jen]/ㄧㄝㄣ".

In addition, since the phonetic symbol "ㄢ" itself is a combination of "ㄚ" and "ㄣ", there will be sound changes in Chinese under certain circumstances, such as "ㄧㄢ" or "ㄩㄢ". When you press "ㄢ", the sound will become a combination of "ㄝ" and "ㄣ". Only in the situation of "ㄨㄢ" will the combination of "ㄚ" and "ㄣ" be maintained. Therefore, in order to avoid confusion, this article will not use the combination of "ㄧㄢ", because in different Hakka languages, there will be different "ian/[jan]/ㄧㄚㄣ" and "ien/[jen]/ㄧㄝㄣ" Pronunciation, so "ㄧㄚㄣ" and "ㄧㄝㄣ" are used as a substitute for "ㄧㄢ", and the correspondence between these two sounds is made in the table below.

The Presence and Correspondence of Finals "ian/[jan]/ㄧㄚㄣ" and "ien/[jen]/ㄧㄝㄣ" in Taiwan's Four Counties and Hailu Hakka

Classification example word	four counties			land and sea
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
sky	Tientwenty four)／[tʰjen˨˦]／ㄊㄧㄝㄣˊ	Tientwenty four)／[tʰjen˨˦]／ㄊㄧㄝㄣˊ	tiantwenty four)／[tʰjan˨˦]／ㄊㄧㄚㄣˊ	tianˋ(53)／[tʰjan˥˧]／ㄊㄧㄚㄣˋ
Year	ngienˇ(11)／[ɲjen˩˩]／ㄬㄧㄝㄣˇ	ngienˇ(11)／[ɲjen˩˩]／ㄬㄧㄝㄣˇ	ngianˇ(11) ／[ɲjan˩˩]／ㄬㄧㄚㄣˇ	ngian(55)/[ɲjan˥˥]/ㄬㄧㄚㄣ
electricity	Tien(55)／[tʰjen˥˥]／ㄊㄧㄝㄣ	Tien(55)／[tʰjen˥˥]／ㄊㄧㄝㄣ	tian(55)／[tʰjan˥˥]／ㄊㄧㄚㄣ	tian+(33)／[tʰjan˧˧]／ㄊㄧㄚㄣ˫
Remark: Literature difference "天" is pronounced differently South four counties (other): "tientwenty four)/[tʰjen˨˦]/ㄊㄧㄝㄣˊ". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". South four counties (other): "tiantwenty four)／[tʰjan˨˦]／ㄊㄧㄚㄣˊ". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition". "Year" is pronounced differently South four counties (other): "neianˇ(11) /[ɲjen˩˩]/ㄬㄧㄝㄣˇ". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". South four counties (other): "ngianˇ(11) /[ɲjan˩˩]/ㄬㄧㄚㄣˇ". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition". "Electricity" is pronounced differently South four counties (other): "tien(55)/[tʰjen˥˥]/ㄊㄧㄝㄣ". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". South four counties (other): "tian(55)／[tʰjan˥˥]／ㄊㄧㄚㄣ". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition".

4.7.2.3 The correspondence, difference and evolution of the finals "ai/[ai̯]/ㄞ" and "e/[e]/ㄝ"

The finals "ai／[ai̯]／ㄞ" and "e／[e]／ㄝ" in Hakka of the four counties and Hakka Hakka in most cases correspond to each other. For example: the three Chinese characters "shoe, brother, barnyard" in Sixian Hakka and Hailu Hakka, the finals are pronounced as "ai"; and the Chinese character "ant" in Sixian Hakka and Hailu Hakka, the final They are all pronounced with the sound of "e".

But there are also a few differences with different corresponding distributions. For example, for the Chinese character "chicken", the final vowel in the Hakka language of the four counties has changed to the sound of "e/[e]/ㄝ", but the final vowel in the Hailu Hakka language is reserved. Pronounce "ai/[ai̯]/ㄞ". The correspondence between the two is drawn as a table below, and theGreen represents the sound of "ai/[ai̯]/ㄞ",Red represents the sound of "e/[e]/ㄝ".

Correspondence between the four counties in Taiwan and the finals "ai/[ai̯]/ㄞ" and "e/[e]/ㄝ" in Hailu Hakka

example word	four counties	land and sea	similarities and differences of finals
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
shoe	haiˇ(11)／[hai̯˩˩]／ㄏㄞˇ	hai(55)／[hai̯˥˥]／ㄏㄞ	✅ same
younger brother	taitwenty four)／[tʰai̯˨˦]／ㄊㄞˊ	taiˋ(53)／[tʰai̯˥˧]／ㄊㄞˋ	✅ same
Barnyard barnyard	pai(55)／[pʰai̯˥˥]／ㄆㄞ	pai+(33)／[pʰai̯˧˧]／ㄆㄞ˫	✅ same
chicken	gie'(24)/[kje˨˦]/ㄍㄧㄝˊ	gaiˋ(53)／[kai̯˥˧]／ㄍㄞˋ	❌ different
ant	ngie(55)/[ɲje˥˥]/ㄬㄧㄝ	ngieˇ(11)/[ɲje˩˩]/ㄬㄧㄝˇ	✅ same
Remark: Polyphone younger brother (1) Four counties: taiˊ(24); Sea and land: taiˋ(53). (white reading) (2) Four counties: ti(55); Sea and land: ti+(33). (text reading) Literature difference chicken Four counties: "gieˊ(24)/[kje˨˦]/ㄍㄧㄝˊ". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". Four counties: "gieˊ(24)／[kje˨˦]／ㄍㄧㄝˊ", "geˊ(24)/[ke˨˦]/ㄍㄝˊ". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition".

In the previous paragraph, why did you say that the final of the word "chicken" is pronounced "e/[e]/ㄝ" in "Sixian", but "retained" in Hailu is pronounced "ai/[ai̯] What about the sound of /ㄞ”? Because according to Schane's (1984, 1996) compound diphthong structure theory, the low vowel "a/[a]/ㄚ" and the high vowel "i/[i]/ㄧ" in the five vowel system The variant formed by combining, that is, the middle vowel "e/[e]/ㄝ". Therefore, the phonetic change of "e/[e]/ㄝ" from "ai/[ai̯]/ㄞ" is often seen in the case of the transformation of ancient Chinese sounds into modern dialects.

So in addition to the above correspondence between the finals "ai／[ai̯]／ㄞ" and "e／[e]／ㄝ", and the middle vowel "e／[e]／ㄝ" is the low vowel "a／[a] In addition to the combination of /ㄚ" and the high vowel "i/[i]/ㄧ", the entire system of the Chinese family is slowly developing towards the restriction that "intermediate sounds and vowel endings cannot be the same".

For example, many Chinese words "iai／[jai̯]/ㄧㄞ" is now pronounced as "ia/[ja]／ㄧㄚ" (for example: the word "Ya"). Similarly, the Hakka language has also developed in the same way. For the Meinong area, the older generation (over 55 years old) usually say "songˊ giaiˊ／[soŋ˨˦ kjai̯˨˦]／ㄙㄛㄥˊ ㄍㄧㄞˊ", while middle-aged people (about 30 to 50 years old) are often in "songˊ giaiˊ／[soŋ˨˦ kjai̯˨˦]／ㄙㄛㄥˊ ㄍㄧㄞˊ", "songˊ gieˊ／[soŋ˨˦ kje˨˦]／ㄙㄛㄥˊ ㄍㄧㄝˊ" Both are used, and most of the younger generation say "songˊ gieˊ／[soŋ˨˦ kje˨˦]／ㄙㄛㄥˊ ㄍㄧㄝˊ", while some primary school students would say "songˊ gieˊ／[soŋ˨˦ kje˨˦]／ㄙㄛㄥˊ ㄍㄧㄝˊ" or "songˊ geˊ／[soŋ˨˦ ke˨˦]／ㄙㄛㄥˊ ㄍㄝˊ".

It can be seen from the above examples that "iai／[jai̯]/ㄧㄞ" → "ie/[je]/ㄧㄝ" → "e/[e]/ㄝ", see "iai/[jai̯]/ㄧㄞ", "ie/[je]/ㄧㄝ", "ai/[ai̯]／ㄞ", "e／[e]／ㄝ" and other finals are not completely stable yet. The difference and correspondence between "iai／[jai̯]Ｇㄞ" and "ie／[je]Ｇㄝ" in the four-county Hakka and Hailu Hakka are organized below in the form of a table.

Correspondence between the four counties in Taiwan and the consonants "iai／[jai̯]Ｇㄞ" and "ie／[je]Ｇㄝ"

Classification example word	four counties			land and sea
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
untie	gieˋ(31)/[kje˧˩]/ㄍㄧㄝˋ	giaiˋ(31)／[kjai̯˧˩]／ㄍㄧㄞˋ	gieˋ(31)/[kje˧˩]/ㄍㄧㄝˋ	gaitwenty four)／[kai̯˨˦]／ㄍㄞˊ
street	gietwenty four)/[kje˨˦]/ㄍㄧㄝˊ	giaitwenty four)/[kjai̯˨˦]/ㄍㄧㄞˊ	gietwenty four)/[kje˨˦]/ㄍㄧㄝˊ	gaiˋ(53)／[kai̯˥˧]／ㄍㄞˋ

4.7.2.4 The correspondence, difference and evolution of the finals "iau/[jau̯]/ㄧㄠ" and "ieu/[jeu̯]/ㄧㄝㄨ"

In the previous section, the transformation of the final "ai/[ai̯]/ㄞ" → "ie/[je]/ㄧㄝ" → "e/[e]/ㄝ" was mentioned, and the next group of The finals "iau／[jau̯]Ｇㄠ" and "ieu／[jeu̯]Ｇㄝㄨ" also have similar correspondences, differences and evolutions. The Chinese character "bridge" is pronounced "kieu" in the Hakka language of the four counties^ˇ(11)／[kʰjeu̯˩˩]／ㄎㄧㄝㄨˇ", in Hailuke, it is pronounced "kiau⁽⁵⁵⁾／[kʰjau̯˥˥]／ㄎㄧㄠ"; the word "柳" is pronounced "ceuˇ" in the four counties⁽¹¹⁾／[t͡sʰeu̯˩˩]／ㄑㄝㄨˇ” sound, while in sea and land it is pronounced “ciau⁽⁵⁵⁾／[t͡sʰjau̯˥˥]／ㄑㄧㄠ" sound.

"Bridge" is listed on the "Taiwanese Hakka Dictionary" website of the Ministry of Education (2019), although it is marked as "kieu^ˇ(11)／[kʰjeu̯˩˩]/ㄎㄧㄝㄨˇ", but in other parts of the literature, it is sometimes marked as the sound of "keuˇ(11)/[kʰeu̯˩˩]/ㄎㄝㄨ". Zhong Rongfu (2017) described in the book "Introduction to Hakka Phonetics in Taiwan, Second Edition", that the final "ieu／[jeu̯]Ｇㄝㄨ" is changed from "iau／[jau̯]Ｇㄠ" to " The transition between eu／[eu̯]／ㄝㄨ".

Assume that the final "iau／[jau̯]／ㄧㄠ" in Hailu Hakka is the original final (Protoform), and in Hakka of four counties due to the improvement of the vowel "a／[a]／ㄚ", it is changed from "iau／[ jau̯]／ㄧㄠ' was transformed into the final of 'ieu／[jeu̯]Ｇㄝㄨ', and then the medial sound was lost due to alienation restrictions, and finally became the final of 'eu／[eu̯]／ㄝㄨ' sound.

In short, the pronunciation of the word "bridge" in Hailu still retains the "kiau" which is more pronounced.⁽⁵⁵⁾／[kʰjau̯˥˥]／ㄎㄧㄠ" sound, while the four counties evolved into the softer pronunciation of "ieu/[jeu̯]/ㄧㄝㄨ" or "eu/[eu̯]/ㄝㄨ" sound. Based on the pronunciation of the Ministry of Education, the pronunciation correspondence of the word "bridge" between the four counties and Hailu Hakka is drawn into a table.

Correspondence between the four counties in Taiwan and the finals of "iau/[jau̯]/ㄧㄠ" and "ieu/[jeu̯]/ㄧㄝㄨ" in Hailu Hakka

example word	four counties	land and sea
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
bridge	kieuˇ(11)／[kʰjeu̯˩˩]／ㄎㄧㄝㄨˇ	kiau(55)／[kʰjau̯˥˥]／ㄎㄧㄠ
firewood	ceuˇ(11)／[t͡sʰeu̯˩˩]／ㄑㄝㄨˇ	ciau(55)／[t͡sʰjau̯˥˥]／ㄑㄧㄠ
Remark: Literature difference "bridge" is pronounced differently  Four counties: "kieuˇ(11)/[kʰjeu̯˩˩]/ㄎㄧㄝㄨˇ". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". Four counties: "keuˇ(11)／[kʰeu̯˩˩]／ㄎㄝㄨ". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition". The word selection of "柳/柴" is different The word "woodcutter". Ministry of Education, 2019, "Common Dictionary of Hakka in Taiwan". The word "firewood". Zhong Rongfu, 2017, "Introduction to Taiwanese Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition".

4.7.2.5 The difference and correspondence between the finals "i/[i]/ㄧ" and "ui/[wi]/ㄨㄧ"

The last group of differences in finals that this article explores is the finals "i/[i]/ㄧ" and "ui/[wi]/ㄨㄧ". The final consonants of the four Chinese characters "wei, fei, every, fat" in the four northern counties are pronounced "i/[i]/ㄧ"; For the sounds of "vi／[vi]／ㄪㄧ", "fi／[fi]／ㄈㄧ" and "mi／[mi]／ㄇㄧ", some people will pronounce it as "vui／[vwi] ／ㄪㄨㄧ", "fui/[fwi]/ㄈㄨㄧ" or "mui/[mwi]/ㄇㄨㄧ", sometimes even the same person will use the two alternately; but sea and land It is only pronounced as "vui/[vwi]/ㄪㄨㄧ", "fui/[fwi]/ㄈㄨㄧ" or "mui/[mwi]/ㄇㄨㄧ".

However, traditional phonology believes that "there is no light lip" (the "light lip" here refers to "labiodental sound"), so the voiced initial "v／[v]／ㄪ" in Hakka language probably comes from It is formed by the extension and intensification (friction) of the back high vowel "u／[u]／ㄨ". proved this. In addition, the different pronunciations of "i／[i]／ㄧ" and "ui／[wi̯]／ㄨㄧ" only occur in the bilabial consonants "b／[p]／ㄅ" and "p／[pʰ]／ㄆ" , "m／[m]／ㄇ" and labiodental "f／[f]／ㄈ" and "v／[v]／ㄪ" are related to the alienation of labial sounds, because " ui／[wi]／ㄨㄧ' has a labial vowel 'u／[u]／ㄨ'. See the table below for examples.

Correspondence between the four counties in Taiwan and the finals "i/[i]/ㄧ" and "ui/[wi]/ㄨㄧ" in Hailu Hakka

Classification example word	four counties			land and sea
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other
Chinese character	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation	Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
Stomach	vi(55)/[vi˥˥]/ㄪㄧ	vi(55)/[vi˥˥]/ㄪㄧ vui(55)/[vwi˥˥]/ㄪㄨㄧ	vi(55)/[vi˥˥]/ㄪㄧ	vui+(33)/[vwi˧˧]/ㄪㄨㄧ˫
No	the fitwenty four)/[fi˨˦]/ㄈㄧˊ	the fitwenty four)/[fi˨˦]/ㄈㄧˊ fui(24)／[fwi˨˦]／ㄈㄨㄧ	the fitwenty four)/[fi˨˦]/ㄈㄧˊ	fuiˋ(53)/[fwi˥˧]/ㄈㄨㄧˋ
Every	mitwenty four)/[mi˨˦]/ㄇㄧˊ	mitwenty four)/[mi˨˦]/ㄇㄧˊ mui(24)/[mwi˨˦]/ㄇㄨㄧ	mitwenty four)/[mi˨˦]/ㄇㄧˊ	muiˋ(53)／[mwi˥˧]／ㄇㄨㄧˋ
Fat	pˇ(11)／[pʰi˩˩]／ㄆㄧˇ	pˇ(11)／[pʰi˩˩]／ㄆㄧˇ	pˇ(11)／[pʰi˩˩]／ㄆㄧˇ	pui(55)／[pwi˥˥]／ㄆㄨㄧ

As mentioned above, most of the finals of the four northern counties and some of the four southern counties pronounce "i/[i]/ㄧ", and only a few of the four southern counties (Gaoshu, Xinpi, Jiadong, etc.) also pronounce The sound of "ui/[wi]/ㄨㄧ" is used, but there are a few exceptions in the four northern counties, that is, at least Zhongliao, Xinyi and other places pronounce the sound of "ui/[wi]/ㄨㄧ" in the same final as Hailu.

Correspondence between the four counties in Taiwan and the finals "i/[i]/ㄧ" and "ui/[wi]/ㄨㄧ" in Hailu Hakka "Fat"

The final consonant of the word "fat"	North four counties	land and sea
Pinyin (Hakka) /phonetic symbols (internationality) /symbol (Phonetic notation
i／[i]／ㄧ	Jingshan, Pinglin, Shuangliantan, Zhongshan, Dongsheng, Baibufan, Puwei, Xipingli, Erlin, Zhutang, Pitou, Xizhou, Guoxing, Yuchi, Shuili
ui／[wi]／ㄨㄧ	Zhongliao, Xinyi	Shangxinli, Puli

4.7.3 Tone differences

The focus of this chapter is "pronunciation differences", while language differentiation and divergence are often reflected in "accents". In the above two sections of "differences in initial consonants" and "differences in finals", the main thing to talk about is "cavity", which is the so-called "segment". It is the so-called "suprasegment" in linguistics.

In addition, there is a subtle relationship between the Hakka language of the four counties and the Hakka language of Hailu. The tones seem to be reversed. That is, when Sixian pronounces high-pitched characters, Hailu pronounces low-pitched characters. It sounds like you are superior to me. In the low case, the reason for this phenomenon will be explained later. The following will elaborate on the tonal differences between Hakka in the four counties and Hakka in Hailu.

4.7.3.1 Differences in tone value

The four-county Hakka and Hailu Hakka have different tones, and the number of tones is also different. The four counties have six tones, while the Hailu Hakka has seven tones. The following will focus on the tones of the four counties and Hailu Hakka. Values and corresponding explanations.

4.7.3.1.1 Tone correspondence

There are many ways to mark the tone of the Chinese family. The most common is to use the same symbols as "ˊ", "ˇ", "ˋ", "˙" and other symbols that are the same as the phonetic symbols. The tones of the tones are called "tones", but due to the limited number of tones (there is one more "tone" for land and sea⁺” symbol), so the same tone pattern may actually be pronounced differently in different Hakka languages (for example, the tone value of the tone pattern “ˋ” in Sixian is “31”, but it is “53” in sea and land), Therefore, only by understanding the tonal correspondence between different Hakka languages, and using "tone value" for comparison, can we accurately explain the tonal relationship between each other.

The tone value is the actual pronunciation of the tone, which can be in the form of pitch, rise and fall, straightness, length, etc., but the tone value is only used to indicate the relative pitch, not the absolute pitch. Usually, "five degrees notation"(akafifth degree notation,five degrees notation,English:five level tone mark, is a method of recording language tones invented by Zhao Yuanren in the 1920s), divided into five levels: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., 1 is the lowest tone and 5 is the highest tone, similar to the Do of music staves , Re, Mi, Fa, So to measure the level of the scale.

Therefore, "55" is a high tone, "33" is a middle tone, "11" is a low tone, "31" is a middle tone, "53" is a high tone, and "35" is a middle tone. As for why the tone value needs to use two numbers, because Chinese is full of twists and turns. For example, the Chinese word for "麻" is "ma³⁵", refers to the rise from the middle scale "3" to the high scale "5". This situation of raising and lowering from one syllable to another scale is called "contour tone" in linguistics. , so two numbers are needed to fully express it.

In the following, the tones of Hakka in the four counties and Hakka in Hailu are drawn into tables according to different regions and documents, and in the literature of the Ministry of Education, "v" stands for finals, and "vd" stands for rhyme endings with stop , which is the so-called "sound rhyme". If you are a beginner or a general reader, you can just check the tuning section of the Ministry of Education. If you want to learn more about the tuning data of different regions and different documents, you can check the tuning section outside the Ministry of Education.

Table of Tones and Tone Values of the Four Counties of Taiwan and Hailu Hakka

Hakka	area	literature	Four tones								number of tones
			level voice		upper voice		Qu Sheng		into the sound
			Yinping	Hinata	Overcast	on the sun	go overcast	Yang to go	Infiltrate	Yang enter
four counties	Regardless	Ministry of Education (2019)	24 (v')	11 (vˇ)	31 (v)		55 (v)		2 (vdˋ)	5 (vd)	6
	north	Yang Shifeng (1957)	24	11	31		55		22	55
	south	Chung Wing Fu (1997)	33	11	31		55		31	55
land and sea	Regardless	Ministry of Education (2019)	53 (v)	55 (v)	24 (v')		11 (vˇ)	33 (v+)	5 (vd)	2 (vdˋ)	7
	Taoyuan	Yang Shifeng (1957)	53	55	13		31	22	55	32
	Zhunan	Law Siu Kam (1990)	53	55	13		31	11	55	32
	middle part	Tu Chunjing (1998)	53	55	24		11	33	5	2

Ping, Shang, Qu, and Ru are the nouns of traditional phonology, and they are the names of tones in ancient Chinese, called "four tones". , the same tone class may have different tone values, and the same tone value may be in different tone classes.

In addition, the Hakka language of the four counties and the Hakka language of the sea and land have different tones and the number of tones is also different. The four counties have six tones, while the Hailu has seven tones. However, the voices of the four counties do not distinguish between yin and yang, so Hailu will have one more tone than the four counties.

Moreover, because the flat tone is pronounced lower in the four counties, but higher in the sea and land, on the contrary, the Qu tone is higher in the four counties, but lower in the sea and land, resulting in The four counties and the sea and the land are high and I am low. In addition to flat tones, ascending tones, descending tones, and entering tones generally conform to these rules. Although there are slight differences and exceptions in the tones of different regions, they still conform to this phenomenon in general.

The following lists the flat tones (including low-level and high-level tones), ascending and descending tones (including rising and falling tones of high-falling and low-falling tones) and entering-rising tones (including high-entering tones and low-falling tones) of the four counties and Hailu Hakka. different tones, such as entering tones) correspond to different four tones, and add different colors (contrasting colors) to draw a table to highlight that the tones and rhymes of the four counties and sea and land just show cross-correlation, opposite and different, you are high and I am low The phenomenon.

Correspondence between the tones and the four tones of Taiwan's four counties and Hailu Hakka

Hakka	area	literature	flat tone			Up and down tone			into tone
			low key (11 / 22)		High tone (55)	Rising tone (24 / 13)	falling tone		high profile (5)	Low profile (2 / 31 / 32)
							high drop (53)	drop down (31)
four counties	Regardless	Ministry of Education (2019)	Hinata		Qu Sheng	Yinping		upper voice	Yang enter	Infiltrate
	north	Yang Shifeng (1957)
	south	Chung Wing Fu (1997)
land and sea	Regardless	Ministry of Education (2019)	Qu Sheng	go overcast	Hinata	upper voice	Yinping		Infiltrate	Yang enter
	Taoyuan	Yang Shifeng (1957)		Yang to go				go overcast
	Zhunan	Law Siu Kam (1990)
	middle part	Tu Chunjing (1998)		go overcast

4.7.3.1.2 Why are the tones of the four counties and Hailu opposite?

From the content of the previous section, we know that the tone values of Hakka Hakka in Sixian and Hakka in Hailu are exactly opposite and different from each other, that is, when Sixian pronounces a high tone, Hailu pronounces a lower tone, and vice versa. When the sound is high, Sixian also pronounces a relatively low sound, showing the special relationship between you being high and me being low. It also makes many people feel very strange when they come into contact with Sixian and Hailu Hakka.

But what is the reason that the tones of Hakka in four counties and Hakka in Hailu are exactly the opposite, with one high and the other low? According to Zhong Rongfu (2017) mentioned in "Introduction to Taiwan Hakka Phonetics, Second Edition": "The variation of tones and tones seems to be solved by fiction. For example, the qusheng of Sixian is Gaoping tone '55' , but the falling tones of Yongding and Hailu are low-key "11". The reasonable explanation is that the original falling tones are "51" with a high falling tone. With a high profile, it becomes a synchronic phenomenon.” The text description is replaced with an easier-to-understand evolution diagram below.

	↗	"55": Four counties
Medieval tones "51"
	↘	"11": Hailu, Yongding

Although this kind of evolution and reasoning seems to explain why the tones of Sixian and Hailu show one high and one low, but it is also mentioned in the book: "The above-mentioned evolution is not only reasonable, but also shows that the tones are different among dialects. If this analysis can be applied to the evolution of other tonal categories, it can further reveal the tonal differences among Hakka dialects.However, we are still unable to explain the articulation and textual research in this regard". Therefore, even if there is a reasonable explanation, there is still no textual research and evidence, so readers are asked to judge whether it is completely correct, or if readers have other evidence or literature, they can also provide it to me. I sorted it out and added it to this article, and I sincerely thank you!

4.7.3.2 Differences in pitch transposition

　　Continuous modulation is also called modulation,Most languages of the Chinese family have continuous tone sandhi, and Hakka is no exception. The so-called tone sandhi refers to the fact that the original tone will change in certain contexts or situations, such as the Chinese "younǐㄋㄧˇgoodhǎoㄏㄠˇ" to "youníㄋㄧˊgoodhǎoㄏㄠˇ", the following will introduce the differences in tone transposition between the four counties and land and sea.

4.7.3.2.1 Differences in tone sandhi (there are four counties in the north, but none in land and sea)

existfour countiesIn the compound words (two-character words), if the preceding character isYinping tone (tone value 24) and the following characters are Yinping (tone value 24), Qusheng (tone value 55) or Yangru (tone value 5) toneIf so, then the characters in front Yinping tone (tone value 24) should beChange it to Yangping tune (tone value 11);But whenPart of the four southern counties (for example: Meinong accent)Among the compound words of , if the tone of the preceding word isYangping (tone value 11) tone and not placed at the end of the word, no matter what tone is followed by a word, the tone of the previous word must beChange it to Yinping tone (the tone value of Meinong accent is 33).

From this, we can find two interesting phenomena of tone transposition in the four counties, that is, the direction of tone transposition is just opposite, the former changes from Yinping to Yangping, and the latter changes from Yangping to Yinping.

As for land and sea, there is no Yin-ping tone shift.

Please refer to the table below for the description and examples of Yinping tone transposition.

Hakka	Description of tone transposition
North four counties	1. Yin PingjiaYinping to Yangping Rules: When adding Yinping characters to Yinping characters, the tone of the preceding Yinping characters must be changed into Yangping tones. formula:1st soundTone value "24"Modality "ˊ" + 1st soundTone value "24"Modality "ˊ" → 5th soundTone value "11"Tone "ˇ" + 1st soundTone value "24"Modality "ˊ". example:Eastdung' (24)ㄉㄨㄫˊWestxiˊ(24)ㄒㄧˊ → Eastdung (11)ㄉㄨㄫˇWestxiˊ(24)ㄒㄧˊ. 2. Yinping plus Qusheng becomes Yangping Rules: Add the tone of the Yinping character, and the tone of the preceding Yinping character must be changed into a Yangping tone. formula:1st soundTone value "24"Modality "ˊ" + 3rd soundTone value "55"Tone " " → 5th soundTone value "11"Tone "ˇ" + 3rd soundTone value "55"Tone " ". example:Passtung' (24)ㄊㄨㄫˊPassgo (55)ㄍㄛ → Passtung (11)ㄊㄨㄫˇPassgo (55)ㄍㄛ. 3. Yinping plus Yang into Yangping Rules: When Yinping characters are added to Yangru characters, the tone of the preceding Yinping characters must be changed into Yangping tones. formula:1st soundTone value "24"Modality "ˊ" + 6th soundTone value "5"Modality "b, d, g" →  5th soundTone value "11"Tone "ˇ" + 6th soundTone value "5"Modality "b, d, g". example:beepung' (24) ㄆㄨㄫˊ honeymed (5)ㄇ ㄝ ㄉ → beepung (11)ㄆㄨㄫˇhoneymed (5)ㄇ ㄝ ㄉ.
Part of Nansi County	Yangping plus any tone becomes Yinping Rules: When Yangping characters are added with any tones, the tones of the previous Yangping characters must be changed to Yinping tones. formula:Hinata(Tone value "11")(Tone "ˇ") + word of any tone→ Yinping characters(Tone value "33")(Modal "+") + Words of any tone. example: Xian(hien (11))(ㄏㄧㄝㄋˇ)people(ngin (11))(ㄫㄧㄋˇ)→Xian(hien+ (33))(ㄏㄧㄝㄋ˫)people(ngin (11))(ㄫㄧㄋˇ) sweet(tiam (11))(ㄊ一ㄚㄇˇ)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ)→sweet(tiam+ (33))(ㄊ一ㄚㄇ˫)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ) Seedling(meuˇ (11))(ㄇㄝㄨˇ)chestnut(lid (5))(ㄌㄧㄉ)→Seedling(meu+ (33))(ㄇㄝㄨ˫)chestnut(lid (5))(ㄌㄧㄉ) hour(siiˇ (11))(ㄙˇ)between(gien' (24))(ㄍㄧㄝㄋˊ→hoursii+ (33)ㄙ˫betweengien' (24)ㄍㄧㄝㄋˊ) Quarrel(cau (11))(ㄘㄚㄨˇ)die(xiˋ (31))(ㄒㄧˋ)→Quarrel(cau+ (33))(ㄘㄚㄨ˫)die(xiˋ (31))(ㄒㄧˋ) Oil(iuˇ (11))(ㄧ ㄨ ˇ)Wood(mug (2))(ㄇㄨㄍˋ)→Oil(iu+ (33))(ㄧㄨ˫)Wood(mug (2))(ㄇㄨㄍˋ)
land and sea	There is no such change in sea and land.

Although it can be seen from the above content that the tone modulation directions of the dialects of the four counties of the South and the North are opposite, but some words in both of them become the same tone of other words after the tone modulation, that is, two words that are originally different in tone. After the tone of one of the words is modified, both of them become homonyms. But sea and land do not have this phenomenon because there is no such tone shift.

North four counties	Part of Nansi County	land and sea
add(tiam' (24) )(ㄊㄧㄝㄋˇ)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ)→add(tiam (11))(ㄊㄧㄝㄋˇ)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ) sweet(tiam (11))(ㄊㄧㄝㄋˇ)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ)	sweet(tiam (11))(ㄊㄧㄝㄋˇ)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ)→sweet(tiam+ (33))(ㄊㄧㄝㄋ˫)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ) add(tiam+ (33))(ㄊㄧㄝㄋ˫)meal(fan (55))(ㄈ ㄚ ㄋ)	none
wind(fun (24))(ㄈㄨㄫˊ)Clothes(i' (24))(ㄧˊ)→wind(fun (11))(ㄈㄨㄫˇ)Clothes(i' (24))(ㄧˊ) red(fun (11))(ㄈㄨㄫˇ)Clothes(i' (24))(ㄧˊ))	red(fun (11))(ㄈㄨㄫˇ)Clothes(i+ (33))(ㄧ˫)→red(fun+ (33))(ㄈㄨㄫ˫)Clothes(i+ (33))(ㄧ˫) wind(fun+ (33))(ㄈㄨㄫㄈㄨㄫ˫)Clothes(i+ (33))(ㄧ˫)

In addition, the Daluguan accent is two tones in Guangfu Village, Daluguan. There are seven changing rules, which belong to the low-key Yinping tune and Yangping tune, and most of the tunes after the tune change are Zhongping tunes (tone value 33 ) or middle rising tone (tone value 35), so the local rising tone will sound higher than that of Liudui Nansixian accent in other regions.

4.7.3.2.2 Differences in the tone sandhi of the word ending "Zai" (there are four counties in the north, but none in the four counties in the south and Hailu)

In addition to the tone sandhi of compound words in the four counties, the tone of the noun suffix "Zai" will also change.⁽³¹⁾／[e˧˩]／ㄝˋ" and "eˇ⁽¹¹⁾/[e˩˩]/ㄝˇ" these two pronunciations. RuofuWhen the tone of the previous character is Shangsheng (tone value 31) or Yinjin (tone value 2), "喀" should be pronounced as "eˇ⁽¹¹⁾／[e˩˩]／ㄝˇ”; But if the previous word is unchanged when other tones. However, no matter what the tone of the preceding character of "Zai" is,Nansi Countyandland and seathen there is no such modulation.

Hakka	Explanation of the Tone Modification of "Aberdeen"
North four counties	Add the word "Aberdeen" in the upper voice Rules: Add the word "Zai" to the upper tone character, and the tone of "Zai" must be changed from upper tone (tone value 31) to Yangping tone (tone value 11). formula:ShangshengziTone value "31"Tone "ˋ" + "young"Tone value "31"Tone "ˋ" → ShangshengziTone value "31"Tone "ˋ" + "young"Tone value "11"Tone "ˇ". example:date(zo (31))(ㄗㄛˋ)young(e (31))(ㄝˋ)→date(zo (31))(ㄗㄛˋ)young(eˇ (11))(ㄝˇ). Add the word "Aberdeen" in Yin Rules: Add the word "Zai" to the yin character, and the tone of "Zai" must be changed from an upper tone (tone value 31) to a Yangping tone (tone value 11). formula:Yin typeTone value "2"Tone pattern "pˋ, tˋ, kˋ" + "young"Tone value "31"Tone "ˋ" → Yin typeTone value "2"Tone pattern "pˋ, tˋ, kˋ" + "young"Tone value "11"Tone "ˇ". example:table(zog (2))(ㄗㄛㄍˋ)young(e (31))(ㄝˋ)→table(zog (2))(ㄗㄛㄍˋ)young(eˇ (11))(ㄝˇ).
Nansi County	There is no such tone change in the four southern counties.
land and sea	There is no such change in sea and land.

4.7.3.2.3 Differences in tone sandhi of the upper tone (no in the four counties, but there are in land and sea)

As mentioned in the aforementioned "Differences in Yinping tone sandhi", the four counties have Yinping tone sandhi but Hailu does not, but what we will talk about next is that Hailu has Shangsheng tone sandhi but the four counties do not, and in particular, Yinping and Hailu in the four counties The tone values of the upper voices are exactly "(vˊ⁽²⁴⁾／[v˨˦]／Vˊ)", the tone must also be changed, but it belongs to a different tone category, forming exactly the opposite situation.

In the compound words (two-character words) of Hailu, if the preceding character is an upper tone (vˊ⁽²⁴⁾／[v˨˦]／Vˊ), and no matter what the tone of the following character is, the tone of the preceding character must be changed to Yang to tone (v⁺⁽³³⁾／[v˧˧]／V˫); but in the compound words of the four counties (whether it is the north four counties or the south four counties), even if the preceding character is an upper tone (vˋ⁽³¹⁾／[v˧˩]／Vˋ), no matter what tone of character is followed, the tone will not change.

In addition, it is worth noting that the upper tone of Hailu (vˊ⁽²⁴⁾/[v˨˦]/Vˊ) and Shangsheng (vˋ⁽³¹⁾/[v˧˩]/Vˋ) are different tones, but the interesting phenomenon is that the Shangsheng of Hailu and the Yinping of Sixian have the same tone value "vˊ⁽²⁴⁾／[v˨˦]／Vˊ", and the Yinping of the four counties already introduced in the previous paragraph needs to be transposed. So the value "vˊ⁽²⁴⁾／[v˨˦]／Vˊ” also needs to change the tone in the four counties and Hailu, but they are distributed into different tones (Shangsheng in Hailu, Yinping in Sixian), just the opposite situation.

In short, in the complex words, Hailu has the tone sandhi of Shangsheng, but that of Sixian does not. But it just so happens that the tone value of the sound of sea and land is equivalent to the Yinping tone that needs to be changed in the four counties. The rules, formulas and examples of upper tone sandhi are listed below.

Differences in Tone Modification between the Four Counties of Taiwan and Hailu Hakka

Hakka	Explanation of tone transposition
four counties	rule		There is no such tone sandhi in the four counties (no matter whether the four counties in the north or the four counties in the south).
	formula
	example
land and sea	rule		The upper tone of sea and land (vˊ(24)／[v˨˦]／Vˊ) character, no matter what the tone of the following character is, it will change to Yangqu (v+(33)/[v˧˧]/V˫) tone.
	formula		Upper tone (vˊ(24)/[v˨˦]/Vˊ)	+	Yinping (vˋ(53)/[v˥˧]/Vˋ)	→	Yang to go (v+(33)/[v˧˧]/V˫)	+	Yinping (vˋ(53)/[v˥˧]/Vˋ)
					Upper tone (vˊ(24)/[v˨˦]/Vˊ)				Upper tone (vˊ(24)/[v˨˦]/Vˊ)
					Yin to go (vˇ(11)/[v˩˩]/Vˇ)				Yin to go (vˇ(11)/[v˩˩]/Vˇ)
					Yin into (vd(5) /[v˥]/VD. (．) ）				Yin into (vd(5) /[v˥]/VD. (．) ）
					Hinata (v(55)/[v˥˥]/V)				Hinata (v(55)/[v˥˥]/V)
					Yang to go (v+(33)/[v˧˧]/V˫)				Yang to go (v+(33)/[v˧˧]/V˫)
					Yang into (vdˋ(2) /[v˨]/VD.）				Yang into (vdˋ(2) /[v˨]/VD.）
	example	order	da'(24)/[ta˨˦]/ㄉㄚˊ	+	dan(53)／[tan˥˧]／ㄉㄢˋ	→	da+(33)/[ta˧˧]/ㄉㄚ˫	+	dan(53)／[tan˥˧]／ㄉㄢˋ
		old-fashioned	gu'(24)／[ku˨˦]／ㄍㄨˊ		ban'(24)/[pan˨˦]/ㄅㄢˊ		gu+(33)／[ku˧˧]／ㄍㄨ˫		ban'(24)/[pan˨˦]/ㄅㄢˊ
		hero	hotwenty four)/[ho˨˦]/ㄏㄛˊ		honˇ(11)／[hon˩˩]／ㄏㄛㄣˇ		ho+(33)／[ho˧˧]／ㄏㄛ˫		honˇ(11)／[hon˩˩]／ㄏㄛㄣˇ
		inspire	ki'(24)／[kʰi˨˦]／ㄎㄧˊ		fad(5)／[fat̚˥]／ㄈㄚㄉ ˙ (．)		the ki+(33)／[kʰi˧˧]／ㄎㄧ˫		fad(5)／[fat̚˥]／ㄈㄚㄉ ˙ (．
		old cow	lo'(24)/[lo˨˦]/ㄌㄛˊ		ngiu(55)／[ɲju˥˥]／ㄬㄧㄨ		lo+(33)／[lo˧˧]／ㄌㄛ˫		ngiu(55)／[ɲju˥˥]／ㄬㄧㄨ
		wait for the way	dentwenty four)/[ten˨˦]/ㄉㄝㄣˊ		lu+(33)／[lu˧˧]／ㄌㄨ˫		den+(33)／[ten˧˧]／ㄉㄝㄣ˫		lu+(33)／[lu˧˧]／ㄌㄨ˫
		primary school	Siautwenty four)/[sjau̯˨˦]/ㄒㄧㄠˊ		hog(2)／[hok̚˨]／ㄏㄛㄍ		Siau+(33)／[sjau̯˧˧]／ㄒㄧㄠ˫		hog(2)／[hok̚˨]／ㄏㄛㄍ

4.7.3.2.4 Differences in tone sandhi in Yin-in (no in the four counties, but there are in land and sea)

In addition to the Shangsheng tone sandhi, which exists in land and sea but not in the four counties, another tone sandhi, "Yinjin tone", also only exists in the land and sea, but not in the four counties.

In the compound words (two-character words) of Hailu, if the preceding character is yin in tone (vd () ⁽⁵⁾/[v˥]/V_{D. (．)} ), and no matter what the tone of the following character is, the Yin character in the front must be pronounced as Yang (vdˋ⁽²⁾/[v˨]/V_v); but in the compound words of the four counties (whether it is the north four counties or the south four counties), even if the preceding character is a yin accent (vdˋ⁽²⁾/[v˨]/V_D.), no matter what tone of character is followed, the tone will not change.

Although Hailu's upper tone sandhi and Yinjin tone sandhi rules also mean that no matter which tone is connected to the character behind the compound word, the tone of the preceding word must be changed, but the difference is that the tone of Hailu's upper tone sandhi and The Yinping tone sandhi values of the four counties are the same, and the tones that present the tone sandhi are different. However, there are no related, similar or opposite tone sandhi rules in the four counties for the tone sandhi rules of Hailu and Hailu, because the four counties do not enter Modification of sound (whether it is Yang or Yin).

In short, in the complex words, Hailu needs to pay attention to the tone sandhi of entering tone, while Sixian does not have any tone sandhi of entering tone. The following table organizes the rules, formulas and examples of Yin Yin transposition.

Differences in Tone Modification between the Four Counties of Taiwan and Hailu Hakka

Hakka	Explanation of tone transposition
four counties	rule		There is no such tone sandhi in the four counties (no matter whether the four counties in the north or the four counties in the south).
	formula
	example
land and sea	rule		The Intrusion of Sea and Land (vd () (5)/[v˥]/Vv (．) ) word, no matter what the tone of the word is followed by the word, it will change the tone into yang (vdˋ(2)/[v˨]/Vv) tune.
	formula		Yin into (vd () (5)/[v˥]/Vv (．) ）	+	Yinping (vˋ(53)/[v˥˧]/Vˋ)	→	Yang into (vdˋ(2)/[v˨]/Vv）	+	Yinping (vˋ(53)/[v˥˧]/Vˋ)
					Upper tone (vˊ(24)/[v˨˦]/Vˊ)				Upper tone (vˊ(24)/[v˨˦]/Vˊ)
					Yin to go (vˇ(11)/[v˩˩]/Vˇ)				Yin to go (vˇ(11)/[v˩˩]/Vˇ)
					Yin into (vd(5) /[v˥]/VD. (．) ）				Yin into (vd(5) /[v˥]/VD. (．) ）
					Hinata (v (55)/[v˥˥]/V)				Hinata (v (55)/[v˥˥]/V)
					Yang to go (v+(33)/[v˧˧]/V˫)				Yang to go (v+(33)/[v˧˧]/V˫)
					Yang into (vdˋ(2) /[v˨]/VD.）				Yang into (vdˋ(2) /[v˨]/VD.）
	example	eyeball	mug(5)／[muk̚˥]／ㄇㄨㄍ (．)	+	zhu(53)／[t͡ʃu˥˧]／ㄓㄨˋ	→	mug(2)／[muk̚˨]／ㄇㄨㄍ	+	zhu(53)／[t͡ʃu˥˧]／ㄓㄨˋ
		wall top	biag(5)／[pjak̚˥]／ㄅㄧㄚㄍ (．)		dang'(24)/[taŋ˨˦]／ㄉㄤˊ		biag(2)／[pjak̚˨]／ㄅㄧㄚㄍ		dang'(24)/[taŋ˨˦]／ㄉㄤˊ
		finals	gied(5)／[kjet̚˥]／ㄍㄧㄝㄉ ˙ (．)		soi(11)／[soi̯˩˩]／ㄙㄛㄧˇ		gied(2)／[kjet̚˨]／ㄍㄧㄝㄉ ˙		soi(11)／[soi̯˩˩]／ㄙㄛㄧˇ
		find	fad(5)／[fat̚˥]／ㄈㄚㄉ ˙ (．)		the gog(5)／[kok̚˥]／ㄍㄛㄍ (．)		fad(2)／[fat̚˨]／ㄈㄚㄉ ˙		the gog(5)／[kok̚˥]／ㄍㄛㄍ (．
		composition	zog(5)／[t͡sok̚˥]／ㄗㄛㄍ (．)		vun(55)/[vun˥˥]/ㄪㄨㄣ		zog(2)／[t͡sok̚˨]／ㄗㄛㄍ		vun(55)/[vun˥˥]/ㄪㄨㄣ
		character	bad(5)／[pat̚˥]／ㄅㄚㄉ ˙ (．		sii+(33)/[sɨ˧˧]/ㄙ˫		bad(2)／[pat̚˨]／ㄅㄚㄉ ˙		sii+(33)/[sɨ˧˧]/ㄙ˫
		law	fab(5)／[fap̚˥]／ㄈㄚㄅ (．)		lud(2)／[lut̚˨]／ㄌㄨㄉ ˙		fabˋ(2)／[fap̚˨]／ㄈㄚㄅ		lud(2)／[lut̚˨]／ㄌㄨㄉ ˙

4.8 Lexical differences

Usually when looking at the differences between dialects, sub-dialects or accents of a language, the first difference is the pronunciation. From the previous chapters of this article, it can be seen that the biggest difference between the four counties of Taiwan and Hailu Hakka lies in the pronunciation part, especially whether there is a distinction between flat, tongue-twisted, and opposite tones, etc., but other than that, more subtle and detailed The difference is reflected in the difference in vocabulary.

After all, Sixian and Hailu both belong to the Hakka language. In most cases, the vocabulary used is often the same. ". However, some words are composed of different Chinese characters and words. The most common difference is that the (north) four counties are the same as the south four counties but different from the land and sea. "Male", but "nasal air" is more commonly used in sea and land.

But sometimes, the (North) four counties, Nansi counties, and Hailu all use different vocabulary. For example, the Chinese word "cold cold" is used in the Hakka language of the four counties as "Han Zhu", while the Hakka language of the four southern counties is "cold". Use "frozen", while Hailuke uses "cold". In particular, sometimes the southern four counties use different vocabulary from the (northern) four counties, and sometimes they use the same vocabulary as the sea and land. For example, the (northern) four counties of the Chinese word "alarm clock" use "alarm clock boy" , Nansi County and Hailu use the "alarm clock". Sometimes the (northern) four counties are the same as Hailu but not the same as the southern four counties. For example, the four counties and Hailu in Chinese for "thinking, feeling" both use "trying", but the southern four counties use "testing". .

The following content will use the HAC’s Hakka ability to verify the content of primary, intermediate, and advanced vocabulary, analyze and compare the differences between the words used in the four counties and Hailu, as long as the "Hakkyu vocabulary" is completely the same, it will not be listed. If (North) Four Counties, South Four Counties, and Hailu are different, and they will be listed. In addition, in most cases, the four north counties are the same as the four south counties. If the four south counties are different from the four north counties, the four south counties will be marked with the symbol "【】".

4.8.1 Differences in primary vocabulary

In the Hakka Proficiency Certification Primary Vocabulary (2020), there are "1813" words in total, and "195" words with differences between the four counties (including the four southern counties) and land and sea, so there are about "11 %" Hakka The primary vocabulary of Chinese is different in the four counties (including the four southern counties) and in the land and sea.

4.8.2 Differences in Intermediate Vocabulary

In the Hakka Proficiency Certification Intermediate Vocabulary (2020), there are "1766" words in total, and "242" words with differences between the four counties (including the four southern counties) and land and sea, so there are about "14 %" Hakka There are differences in middle-level vocabulary in the four counties (including the four southern counties) and in the land and sea.

4.8.3 Differences in intermediate and advanced vocabulary

In Hakka Proficiency Certification intermediate and advanced vocabulary (2020), there are a total of "2395" words, and "478" words with differences between the four counties (including the four southern counties) and land and sea, so there are about "20 %" Hakka high-level vocabulary is different in the four counties (including the four southern counties) and the land and sea.

4.9 Differences in Difficulty

Although the four counties and Hailu in Taiwan are both Hakka languages under the Chinese branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, they all use Chinese characters in their writing system, and the phonetic symbols used are roughly the same (with only slight differences), that is, their writing systems are highly consistent, but their vocabulary is different. different, and the biggest difference is in the "pronunciation" part.

In terms of the number of consonants, Hailu has 4 more consonants than the four counties (3 more than Gaoshu, Jiadong, and Xinpi in the Nansi counties), because Hailu distinguishes between flat and warped consonants, which are Jingzhuang and Zhizhang Separated, but the four counties do not distinguish between the flat tongue sound and the warped tongue sound, that is, they are all merged into the flat tongue sound, which is the confluence of Jingzhuang and Zhizhang. In terms of the number of tones, Hailu has one more tone than the four counties, because Hailu's de-sounding characters are divided into Yin Qu "vˇ(11)/[v˩˩]/Vˇ" and Yang Qu "v⁺⁽³³⁾／[v˧˧]／V˫", while the Qu sound of the four counties "v⁽⁵⁵⁾／[v˥˥]／V” does not distinguish between yin and yang. The number of initial consonants, tones, tone transposition rules, etc. are sorted out in the form of tables, and the differences and explanations are compared.

Differences in Difficulty of Hakka between the Four Counties of Taiwan and the Land and Sea Hakka

quantity	four counties			land and sea	difference	illustrate
	North four counties	Nansi County
		Gaoshu, Jiadong, Xinpi	other
number of initials	18	19	18	22	Hailu is 3~4 more than the four counties	There are flat and warped sounds in land and sea, but none in the four counties.
number of tones	6	6	6	7	Hailu has 1 more counties than the four counties	The sea and land are divided into yin and yang tones, but there are no sounds in the four counties.
number of transposition rules	2	1	1 or 2	2

Therefore, it is difficult to learn how to transfer from four counties to sea and land first, because you need to learn more consonants (especially the distinction between flat and tongue-turned sounds), tones (especially the tones of Qu are divided into Yang Qu and Yin Qu), and so on. On the contrary, if you can learn the four counties from the sea and land, it will be easier, and you don’t need to pay attention to whether there are flat tongues or protruding tongues (because they are all combined into flat tongue sounds), and you don’t need to distinguish between Yin and Yang in Qusheng.

By the way, from the perspective of language/dialect/sub-dialect/accent differentiation, the Ministry of Education officially divides the four counties into (north) four counties and south four counties, while there is no subdivision of sea and land, but in fact, if we want to go deeper Considering the whole Taiwan, different regions, and different documents, in fact, it can be further subdivided into many "sub-dialects". However, regardless of whether it is based on the standards of the Ministry of Education or the documents of field investigations, the differentiation of the four counties is still greater than that of Hailu. There are more, because the distribution is wider and the number of people who use it is the largest. If you want to be proficient in all sub-dialects/accents, the four counties will be more complicated than Hailu. But if there is no such demand, there is not much difference, as long as the Ministry of Education prevails, the four counties are usually dominated by the four northern counties.

5 Conclusion

The main purpose of this article is to describe, discuss and compare the differences between the four counties and sea and land of Hakka in Taiwan. First, understand the four counties and sea and land in terms of the origin of use, naming, geographical distribution, number of users, language classification, and writing system. The background concept and knowledge of the accent, and then discuss from various aspects of pronunciation, such as a more in-depth analysis of initials, finals, tones and tone changes, and finally compare the differences in the use of the four counties and land and sea vocabulary, and This is a comparison of the degree of difficulty, so that readers can clearly understand the difference between the two.

Through the discussion of the above chapters, it is understood that although there are many differences between the four counties and the land and sea, there is still a way to understand each other. The two biggest differences between the four counties and Hailu are to distinguish between flat and warped sounds, and the phenomenon of opposite tones to distinguish the differences between the two. At the same time, for those who do not distinguish between flat-curved/flat-rolled tongue sounds in daily Chinese, they may not be good at or are not used to it when learning Hailuhak. pay attention.

In addition, you can take advantage of the opposite characteristics of the tones, which can be used to quickly switch between the two in the speaking part. It is also one of the skills that you want to learn Sixian and Hailu at the same time, but if you want to be more precise, you need to understand it more deeply. Not only the tone is reversed. Although the main difference in most cases is the opposite tone, if you want to understand the detailed differences in detail, you still need to have a deeper understanding from the initials, finals, and tones, and start from the vocabulary differences when communicating. Only in this way can we get closer to native speakers, and avoid people who feel that the words used are a bit weird.

In short, although in most cases, the main representative sound of Hakka in Taiwan is the (Northern) Sixian accent, and the broadcasting systems such as train platforms, buses, and MRT usually use this accent, and the number of users reaches five. Cheng Duo is approaching 60%, already more than half of the Hakka users. However, the number of users of Hailu dialect has reached more than 40% of the number of users of Hakka, and it is almost close to half. There is a certain number of people, which should not be underestimated. Therefore, if you understand the two Hakka languages of Sixian and Hailu, you will be able to get in touch with the two largest Hakka accents in Taiwan to the greatest extent.

references

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update record

1. 2022/05/18, multilingual version added.
2. 2022/01/17, changed all the tables in the "Vocabulary Differences between Taiwan's Four Counties and Hailu Hakka" in the "Vocabulary Differences" chapter to use Google spreadsheets and embed them in this article, so as to avoid loading too much table data on this page and affecting the webpage Loading speed.